It refers to people who are involved in the formation of human society with the task of scientific research, but today it usually refers to people who study natural sciences and engage in research to systematize them. They are distinguished from engineers who are primarily involved in applied research such as improving the means of production, but today, as science has become more organized and systematic, and scientific research has become closely linked to industry and politics as economic entities, they are sometimes included in the term "scientific engineers." [Jun Fujimura] The emergence of scientistsThe emergence of scientists should be seen as the origin of modern science. Even in ancient times, there were efforts to gain insight into nature and to systematize it. However, it was during the so-called "scientific revolution" in the 17th century that people who went one step further from conceptually developing an interpretation of nature under a certain view of nature, combined it with experience, and tried to base their understanding of nature on experience, appeared. They created experimental methods to elucidate the laws of nature and combined them with demonstrative reasoning. This was the beginning of modern science. In a sense, the establishment of a new social system, that is, modern civil society, which was established against the backdrop of technological development, gave birth to a new class of scientists. On the one hand, they were religious leaders and thinkers who inherited intellectual traditions, and on the other hand, they were engineers and enlighteners who absorbed and developed technological accumulation. They came from minor noble families, merchants, clergy, doctors, engineers, etc., and were social classes with intellectual wealth and affluence in life. Their scientific research was not closely related to their livelihood, nor did it have a direct relationship to social production. This would become a prototype that would have an influence on future generations. [Jun Fujimura] Academic societies and scientific organizationsThe ideas of Francis Bacon, who established the empirical and empirical basis of modern science, bore fruit in the 17th century with the establishment of the Academy, a cooperative of scientists. While the Royal Society in England aimed to become independent from the monarchy against the backdrop of the civil revolution that was underway at the time, the Academie des Sciences de Paris was organized as a government institution due to the difficulty of achieving economic independence. Members of the Academie received salaries from the king, and this could be said to have marked the beginning of the professionalization of scientific research. Academic societies were intended to accumulate and enrich knowledge through organization, but they were also ideological groups that shared the Baconian spirit as their bond, and eventually developed into a kind of community of scientists. Common concepts and beliefs were born there, and even normative science was born. For this reason, academic societies also contained the seeds of anti-authority. [Jun Fujimura] The differentiation between scientists and engineersThe Industrial Revolution dramatically increased the role of technology, and the growing social demand for technological progress provided a great stimulus to science, and scientific research entered a new stage of progress, driven by technology. The French Enlightenment played a major role in this rise in science. The activities of the Encyclopedists, who criticized the old system, were a direct revival of the Baconian spirit. The ideas of these Enlightenment thinkers, who believed that "science is the foundation of the progress of human society," aimed to promote mutual assistance between individual sciences and historical continuity in scientific endeavors, and led to criticism of the status system of the Academy of Sciences and its reorganization, as well as the establishment of institutions for training scientists. The École Polytechnique, founded in 1794, was an attempt to systematically train scientists in a social sense, actively promoting the importance of the role that science and technology play in society as a policy, against the backdrop of the rise of the French Revolution. It produced many outstanding human resources and had a major impact not only on French science, but on the subsequent development of science in general. In the 17th century, scientists and engineers were still undifferentiated, but they progressed to a stage where they were divided into engineers who were dedicated to inventing and improving machines, and scientists who were interested in the logic and systematization of the laws of nature themselves. Moreover, this division of labor, along with the diversification and complexity of the content of both science and technology, paved the way for the separation and contradiction between science and technology, and between scientists and engineers. [Jun Fujimura] Capitalist Production and the Isolation of ScientistsUnder capitalist production, engineers occupied an important social position as the innovators and improvers of the means of production. On the other hand, scientists who devoted themselves to the pure study of the laws of nature themselves were seen as not directly related to production and of no use in real life, and even scientists themselves began to speak of "science that transcends society" and "truth for truth's sake." Thus, scientists became socially fixed in an anomalous way. In terms of the scientist as a profession, even though they have been involved in scientific research itself, the idea of positioning it as an independent profession in society has been weak. As a result, the majority of scientists have been positioned as teachers in universities, which are essentially educational institutions. While this had the effect of making universities research institutions, it also resulted in the development of lofty science and otherworldly academia that was isolated from society. On the other hand, it also weakened the economic ties with society, which later sometimes created various obstacles and distortions in the promotion of scientific research, but at the same time it also had the effect of weakening external regulation and intervention in the direction of scientific research. [Jun Fujimura] Clustering of scientific researchThe two world wars brought about major changes in the state of science. Technology and science had developed in a haphazard manner under the logic of capitalist production, but the concentrated investment of capital and systematic research under the extreme conditions of war dramatically accelerated the speed of technological transformation and practical application of technology. This method clearly demonstrated the close relationship between industry and science after the war, that is, the diagram of science-technology-industry. Furthermore, in the stage of state monopoly capitalism, science was strongly backed by industry and the government, but was also subject to management and regulation. The number of large-scale research institutes established by governments and companies increased, universities as research institutions were expanded, and systematic research methods by groups developed. The number of scientists increased rapidly, and the number of scientists worldwide, which was said to be tens of thousands at the beginning of the 20th century, has now reached millions. [Jun Fujimura] Problems faced by scientistsIn this situation, the collectivization and control of scientific research is progressing, and this is becoming more and more of a political and national policy rather than an industrial one, and the status of scientists is gradually changing into that of just one member of these large organizations. After the Second World War, a scientist movement was born among scientists who were concerned about this state of affairs. Scientists faced many hardships regarding science and the state, such as exile during the war, underground resistance movements, the Scientific Research Mobilization Plan, the Manhattan Project and the dropping of the atomic bomb, and subsequent efforts to internationally control the atomic bomb. They positioned those engaged in science as scientific workers and organized the Science Workers' League. This was eventually consolidated into the World Federation of Scientists, and developed into the Scientists' Charter of 1948. However, scientists today face significant problems, such as the lameness of various scientific fields, the deterioration of the content of scientific research, problems with organized research and originality, and fears of big science running wild. These problems raise new and sharp questions about the nature of scientists and their social responsibility, as well as the relationship between science and society. [Jun Fujimura] "Science in History, 4 volumes, by J.D. Bernal, translated by Yasuo Chinme (1967, Misuzu Shobo)" ▽ "Scientists and Engineers, by E. McClensky, translated by Katsuhiko Ohnogi and Minoru Kuronuma (1960, Keiso Shobo)" ▽ "The Social Function of Science, by J.D. Bernal, translated by Shoichi Sakata et al. (1981, Keiso Shobo)" [References] | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
科学の研究をその任務として人間社会の構成にかかわっている人々をいうが、今日では、普通、自然科学を研究の対象にして、その体系化のために研究に携わる人をさすことが多い。生産手段の改善など主として応用面の研究に携わる技術者とは区別されるが、科学の組織化、体制化が進み、科学研究が経済主体としての産業や政治と密着してきた今日では、「科学技術者」の用語で包括される場合がある。 [藤村 淳] 科学者の発生科学者の発生は近代科学の成立にその起源をみるべきであろう。古代にも自然に対する洞察とその体系化への努力はあった。しかし、ある自然観の下に自然の解釈を概念的に展開することから一歩進めて、これを経験と結合し、むしろ経験のうえに自然の理解を位置づけようとする人々が現れたのは、17世紀のいわゆる「科学革命」の時代であった。彼らは自然法則を解明するための実験の方法を創出して、これを論証的推論と結合させた。これが近代科学の出発である。いわば技術的な発展を背景にして成立した新しい社会の体制、すなわち近代市民社会の成立が科学者という新しい階層を生み出したのである。彼らは一面では知的伝統を受け継ぐ宗教家、思想家であり、他面では技術的蓄積を吸収発展させる技術家、啓蒙(けいもう)家であった。彼らの出身は小貴族、商人、聖職者、医者、技術家などで、知的な豊かさと生活のゆとりをもった社会階層であった。彼らの科学研究はその生計とは密着せず、また社会的生産にも直接の関係をもたなかった。これが一つのプロトタイプとして後世に影響をもつことになる。 [藤村 淳] 学協会と科学者の組織近代科学のあり方を経験論的、実証的に基礎づけたF・ベーコンの思想は、17世紀に科学者の協同組合としての学協会(アカデミー)の成立で実を結んだ。イギリスのロイヤル・ソサイエティーが、当時進行しつつあった市民革命を背景に王権からの独立を意図したのに対し、パリ科学アカデミーは、経済的自立の困難を理由に政府機関として組織された。ここでは会員たる科学者は王からの給与を受ける身であり、このことが科学研究の職業化の始まりとなったともいえる。 学協会は組織化による知識の累積と豊富化を意図したが、これはベーコン的精神を絆(きずな)とする一つの思想団体でもあり、やがて科学者の一種の共同体へと進展する。そこでは共通の概念、信条が生まれ、規範となる科学も生まれた。そうしたことからして学協会は、反権力の芽を内包するものでもあった。 [藤村 淳] 科学者と技術者との分化産業革命は技術の役割を飛躍的に増大させた。そして技術の進歩への社会的な要求の強まりは科学に大きな刺激を与え、科学研究は技術に促進される形で新たな進歩の段階に入った。 このような科学的高揚のなかでフランス啓蒙思想の果たした役割は大きい。旧制度への批判を旗印にした百科全書派の活動はベーコン精神の直接の復活であり、「科学こそ人間社会の進歩の基盤」としたこれら啓蒙思想家の思想は、個々の科学間の相互援助、科学の事業の歴史的連続性を目ざして、科学アカデミーの身分制を批判してこれを改組し、さらに科学者を養成する機関の設立へと結実した。1794年に設立されたエコール・ポリテクニクは、このようなフランス革命期の高揚を背景に、科学技術が社会において果たす役割の重要性を積極的に政策化して、社会的な意味での科学者の計画的養成に出発した試みであり、多くの優れた人材を生み出して、フランスの科学はもとより、その後の科学全般の発展に大きな影響をもたらした。 17世紀に未分化であった科学者と技術者は、一方では機械などの発明・改良に専心する技術者と、他方では自然法則そのものの論理化、体系化に関心をもつ科学者との分業化の段階に進んだ。しかもこの分業化は、科学・技術双方の内容の多様化、複雑化とともに、科学と技術との、また科学者と技術者との相反分離への道を開くものとなった。 [藤村 淳] 資本制生産と科学者の遊離資本制生産の下で技術者は生産手段の改良・発明の担い手として重要な社会的位置を占める。一方、自然法則そのものの純粋な研究に専念した科学者は、生産に直接かかわらないもの、現実の生活に役だたないものとみなされ、科学者の側からさえも「社会から超越した学」「真理のための真理」がいわれるようになった。こうして科学者は社会的には変則的な形で固定化した。 職業としての科学者という面では、科学研究そのものにかかわってきたにもかかわらず、それを独立した職業として社会的に位置づけるという観念は希薄であった。そのため科学者の大部分は教員という形で、本来は教育機関である大学に位置づけられた。このことは、大学を研究機関たらしめる効用をもった反面、社会と隔絶した高踏的な科学や超俗的なアカデミズムを育てる結果となった。また一方では、経済的な面での社会との結び付きを希薄にし、のちには科学研究の推進にとって、ときとしてさまざまな障害を生み、ゆがみをも生じさせたが、同時に、科学研究の方向については、外部からの規制・介入を結果的に弱めるという効用の面もあった。 [藤村 淳] 科学研究の集団化二度にわたる世界的規模の戦争を契機に、科学の状況は大きく変化した。資本制生産の下で資本の論理の下に跛行(はこう)的に展開してきた技術と科学であったが、戦争という極限状況の下での資本の集中的投入と組織的研究は、科学の技術化、技術の実用化の速度を著しく速めた。この方法は戦後になって産業と科学の密着、すなわち科学―技術―産業の図式を明確に示すものとなる。また国家独占資本主義の段階で科学は、産業と政府とによる強力なバックアップと同時に、管理・規制をも受けることとなった。政府や企業によって設立される大規模な研究所が増え、研究機関としての大学も拡充され、集団による組織的な研究方式が進展した。科学者の数は急激に増大し、20世紀初頭に全世界で数万人といわれた科学者人口は数百万人の多数に達してきている。 [藤村 淳] 科学者が抱える問題このような状況で、科学研究の集団化、研究の統制管理が進められ、しかもそれは産業というより、政治―国家政策としての側面が強まり、科学者の地位は、これら大きな組織のなかの一構成員に変貌(へんぼう)しつつあるのが現状であろう。 第二次世界大戦後、こうした事態を憂える科学者のなかから科学者運動が巻き起こった。大戦を通じての亡命、地下抵抗運動、科学研究動員計画、マンハッタン計画と原爆投下、またその後の原爆の国際管理をめぐる動きなど、科学と国家をめぐる多くの苦悩に直面した科学者たちは、科学に従事する人々を科学労働者として位置づけ、科学労働者連盟を組織した。これはやがて世界科学者連盟に結集され、1948年の科学者憲章へと発展した。しかし、今日の科学者が抱える問題は大きい。科学各分野の跛行の問題、科学の研究内容の変質、組織的研究と独創性の問題、巨大科学の暴走への危惧(きぐ)、などである。これらは、科学者のあり方、科学者の社会的責任の問題と同時に、科学と社会のかかわり方について、いま一つ新しく鋭い問題を投げかけている。 [藤村 淳] 『J・D・バナール著、鎮目恭夫訳『歴史における科学』全四巻(1967・みすず書房)』▽『E・マクレンスキー著、大野木克彦・黒沼稔訳『科学技術者』(1960・勁草書房)』▽『J・D・バナール著、坂田昌一他訳『科学の社会的機能』(1981・勁草書房)』 [参照項目] | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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