Japanese mythology

Japanese: 日本神話 - にほんしんわ

In a broad sense, it refers to all myths that have been handed down and recorded in Japan, but usually refers to the myths recorded in classics such as the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, which were compiled in the early 8th century. The core of Japan's classical mythology is the story of the Age of the Gods, recorded in the first volume of the Kojiki and volumes 1 and 2 of the Nihon Shoki, as well as the story of the founding of the country by Emperor Jimmu, described at the beginning of the middle volume of the Kojiki and in volume 3 of the Nihon Shoki, which establishes that the royal authority in Japan originates from Takamagahara and that the Imperial Family is the legitimate ruler of the country. In addition, the Kofudoki records local myths not found in the Kojiki and Nihonshoki, such as the Kunibiki myth in the Izumo no Kuni Fudoki, and the Sendai Kuji Hongi, thought to have been compiled in the 9th century, records the myth of the descent from heaven of the ancestors of the Mononobe clan. These classics contain a wealth of ancient Japanese mythology, but they do not contain all the myths that existed in ancient Japan. They are mainly based on the traditions of the Imperial family and the powerful clans surrounding it, and are centered on central myths, that is, myths of the rulers. There must have been many other local and folk myths, but they were only partially recorded in the Fudoki myths. Some folk myths also changed in form in the Middle Ages and were probably recorded for the first time as stories or legends.

[Taro Obayashi]

The structure of Japanese mythology

Japanese mythology, recorded in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki from the beginning of the world to the founding of the country by Emperor Jimmu, is roughly divided into four groups of myths. The outlines of the myths in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki are roughly the same, but there are small differences. In particular, the Nihon Shoki lists several alternative versions in addition to the main text, and the way the names of gods are written is also different in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki.

The four groups of myths in the Kojiki and Nihon shoki mythology are the "Creation of the Land Myths," "Takamagahara Myths," "Izumo Myths," and "Hyuga Myths." A recurring theme in these myths is the establishment of order in chaos, or the overcoming of chaos through order.

[Taro Obayashi]

Creation myth

The first creation myth covers the period from the beginning of the world to the birth of Amaterasu Omikami, and is centered on the myth of Izanagi and Izanami creating the land. In other words, according to the Kojiki, when the heavens and the earth first opened up, the three gods Ame-no-Minakanushi, Takamimusubi, and Kamumusubi were born in Takamagahara. Next, when the land was not yet fully formed and was like fat floating on the water and drifting like a jellyfish, Umashiasakabihikoji and Ame-no-Tokotachi appeared based on something that sprouted like a reed sprout. Contrary to this, the main text of the Nihon Shoki states that after the heavens and earth were separated, the land floated and drifted like a fish floating in water, and between the heavens and the earth something reed-like sprout appeared, which was Kuninotokotachi-no-Mikoto. Next, both the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki tell us that in this state of chaos with the land drifting, the two gods Izanagi and Izanami received orders from the heavenly gods to create the land. Izanagi is thought to symbolize Father Heaven, and Izanami symbolizes Mother Earth. The two gods descended from heaven to the small island of Onogoro, which was the first to form in the primordial ocean, and got married, and the goddess gave birth to the Oyashima, or the islands that make up the land of Japan (establishing order in chaos). The two gods then gave birth to various other gods, but the goddess died after giving birth to the fire god Kagutsuchi. The male god went to Yomi-no-kuni (the land of the dead) to bring the goddess back, but was unable to do so and returned to earth. He then bathed in Awagihara, Tachibana no Odo, Hyuga, Tsukushi, to purify himself of impurities. Three noble children were born from the male god's left eye: the sun goddess Amaterasu Omikami, from his right eye the moon god Tsukuyomi-no-mikoto (Tsukiyomi-no-mikoto), and from his nose the storm god Susanoo-no-mikoto. The story from the birth of the fire god to the birth of the three noble children follows the format found in the Kojiki and the Sixth Book of the Nihon Shoki, but in the main text of the Nihon Shoki, it is said that Amaterasu and the three noble children, along with Hiruko, were born to Izanagi and Izanami.

[Taro Obayashi]

Takamagahara myth

The second is the Takamagahara myth. Before Susanoo-no-Mikoto went to his mother's land, Ne-no-Kuni, he came to Takamagahara to meet his elder sister, Amaterasu-Omikami. The younger brother made a pledge with his elder sister to show that he had not come to heaven with evil intentions to seize the country. At that time, the elder sister gave birth to three goddesses and the younger brother gave birth to five gods. The five gods were considered to be the children of their elder sister, Amaterasu-Omikami, and one of them, Ame-no-Oshihomimi-no-Mikoto, was chosen as the successor to Amaterasu-Omikami. After this, Susanoo committed acts of violence in heaven, which made the angry goddess hide in the Heavenly Rock Cave (Ama-no-Iwato), and the world fell into darkness. However, the gods met together and created a mirror to reflect the goddess, which they hung on a sakaki tree outside the cave. The goddess, intrigued by her own reflection in the mirror, emerged from the cave and light returned. Susanoo was then banished to the underworld (order restored after chaos). The Takamagahara myth provided a mythological paradigm that suggested that just as the crisis in kingship in heaven had been overcome, the crisis in kingship on earth would also be overcome.

[Taro Obayashi]

Izumo mythology

The third is the Izumo myth. Susanoo, who descended from heaven, defeated the Yamata no Orochi (Eight-headed Serpent) in Izumo, married Kushinadahime whom he had saved, and presented the sacred sword, Kusanagi no Tsurugi, that emerged from the snake's body to Amaterasu. Susanoo's descendant, Okuninushi no Mikoto, then worked with Sukunahikona no Mikoto to build the country. Meanwhile, in Takamagahara, the land on earth that Amaterasu's descendants should rule, Toyoashihara no Mizuho no Kuni, was in a terrible state of chaos, and so he sent messengers one after another to the earth to calm it down. In the end, Okuninushi-no-Mikoto handed over the country to the descendants of Amaterasu Omikami as requested by the messenger from Takamagahara, and Ninigi-no-Mikoto, the grandson of Amaterasu Omikami, descended from heaven to rule the earth. According to the Kojiki, Ninigi-no-Mikoto brought with him the three sacred treasures of Amaterasu Omikami: the Yata no Kagami mirror (the mirror that holds the spirit of the god), the Kusanagi sword, and the Yasakani no Magatama jewel (the jewel of the heavenly jewel). Although this was the descent of the heavenly grandson following the transfer of the country of Izumo, the place where the heavenly grandson descended from heaven was not Izumo, but Takachiho-no-Mine in Hyuga, Tsukushi. In other words, the heavenly grandson descended not to the hidden world of Izumo, but to the world of the visible, that is, "the land where the morning sun shines directly and the evening sun shines brightly" (Kojiki). From the perspective of the Japanese mythological system, the Izumo mythology is thought to have been inserted between the Ama-no-Iwaya mythology and the Tenson Korin mythology. The Izumo mythology, especially the exploits of Okuninushi-no-Mikoto, are described in detail in the Kojiki.

[Taro Obayashi]

Hyuga Myth

The fourth is the Hyuga myth. Ninigi-no-Mikoto, who descended from heaven, married Konohana-no-Sakuya-hime, the daughter of the mountain god Oyamatsumi-no-Mikoto, and the princess gave birth to three children in the midst of a burning fire. One of them, Yamasachi-hiko (Hikohohodemi-no-Mikoto), lost an important fishing hook that he had borrowed from his older brother Umisachi-hiko, so he went to the palace of the sea god in search of it, and eventually married Toyotama-hime, the daughter of the sea god. Yamasachi-hiko then returned to earth with the fishing hook back, and punished his older brother, who then submitted to his younger brother and became the ancestor of the Hayato people. Princess Toyotama came to earth to give birth, but despite forbidding her husband to see her during the birth, he saw her in the form of a crocodile (in the Nihon Shoki it is described as a dragon), and in anger, the princess left her child behind and returned to the sea. Since then, communication between land and sea has been cut off. Ninigi established political order by descending from heaven as a ruler, and Hikohohodemi established political order by subjugating his brother, the ancestor of the Hayato people. After Ninigi's descent from heaven, communication between heaven and earth ended in principle, and communication between land and sea ceased when Princess Toyotama left for the sea, but both of these were the establishment of order in the realm of the universe. Furthermore, Emperor Jimmu, the grandson of Hikohohodemi, entered Yamato from Hyuga, conquered the indigenous forces, and established a dynasty. Thus, the shift from chaos to order bore fruit in the founding of a nation.

[Taro Obayashi]

Compilation of Japanese mythology

The system of ancient Japanese mythology that we know today is recorded in the Kojiki, written by Oono Yasumaro in 712 (Wado 5), and the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in 720 (Yoro 4). The Teiki and Kyuji, which were the source material for the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, are thought to have been created around the 6th century, and although some of the individual traditions that make up their contents date back to earlier periods, it is likely that many of the individual myths already existed before the 6th century.

The fact that the mythological system was recorded and placed at the beginning of the nation's history, and that this was at the beginning of the 8th century, indicates that on the one hand it was an affirmation of the national identity, and on the other hand it was an expression of an effort to establish the foundation of the heightened imperial authority. In other words, after the defeat at Hakusukinoe (663) and the turmoil of the Jinshin Rebellion (672), Emperor Tenmu made an effort to establish the imperial authority, and had Hieda no Are recite and learn the Teio no Hitsugi (Teikou no Hitsugi) (Teiki) and Sendai Kuji (Honji), thus laying the foundation for the compilation of the Kojiki. Also, during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, the Ise Grand Shrine, which enshrines Amaterasu Omikami, the ancestor of the imperial family, was systematically established. The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki mythological system strongly asserts that the Emperor, a descendant of Amaterasu Omikami, is the legitimate ruler of the country.

[Taro Obayashi]

The lineage of Japanese mythology

The individual myths that make up the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki mythological system were probably brought to the Japanese archipelago from various sources at different times through various cultural currents, and were later systematized. In other words, most of the individual myths that served as the material had similar stories overseas, and even though they were introduced from outside, they were compiled into the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki mythological system in Japan. There are very few classical myths that seem to date back to hunter-gatherer culture. The only myth that seems to have belonged to the slash-and-burn cultivation culture is the myth in which crops sprouted from the corpse of Ogetsuhime (Kojiki) or Ukemochi (Nihon Shoki) (the myth of corpse rebirth). The combination of millet, barnyard millet, wheat, and beans indicates that it was based on the slash-and-burn cultivation of miscellaneous grains that was practiced from southern China to western Japan, and because this type of myth is often found in Southeast Asia and there are many traces of it in southern China, it is believed to have been introduced to Japan along with slash-and-burn cultivation in the late Jomon period. However, there is a problem in that in Japanese mythology, in addition to slash-and-burn crops, rice and silkworms also emerge from the same corpses.

Wet rice cultivation was introduced to Japan from Jiangnan, China, probably via the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, and it is believed that this is where the Yayoi culture began. One myth that seems to have been introduced through this cultural flow is the myth of the slaying of the Yamata no Orochi. In southern China, there have been ancient legends of slaying snakes, and the name of the girl who was saved is Odd Inadahime, which shows a connection with wet rice cultivation. The creation myths of Izanagi and Izanami, as well as the myths of Umisachi and Yamasachi, are deeply related to the world of the sea, and in Japan, it is believed that the people of the sea were the bearers of this. The creation myths are related to flood myths from southern China to Southeast Asia. In other words, they are myths in which a brother and sister who survive a flood marry and become the ancestors of mankind. However, there is a variant of this type that does not describe the occurrence of a flood, but instead a brother and sister descend from heaven to an island born in the primordial ocean, marry, and become the ancestors of mankind, which is scattered throughout the islands of Southeast Asia. Traces of this can also be seen in folk tales from Jiangnan, China. In addition, the myth of Umisachi and Yamasachi, in which the protagonist searches for a lost fishing hook in the sea, has many similar stories from Indonesia to western Micronesia, and there is also a different version in China. It is likely that this myth was introduced to western Japan from the center of Jiangnan along with the maritime culture.

In contrast, the myths of the ruling culture centered on the Imperial Family have a strong tendency to be linked to the pastoral culture of inland Asia via the Korean Peninsula. One such myth is the myth of the descent of the heavenly grandson, and the idea that the ultimate basis of kingship is in heaven is often found in the founding myths of ancient Korean countries. For example, the myth of Kan'in leading 3,000 followers and descending from heaven to Mount Taebaek with three heavenly seals can be compared to the myth of Ninigi, the grandson of the heavenly grandson, descending from heaven accompanied by many retinues and carrying the Three Sacred Treasures. Furthermore, the myth of Emperor Jimmu's eastern expedition with his brother Itsuse no Mikoto is related to the myth of the founding of Baekje by the brothers Biryu and Onjo, in both cases the older brother, representing the principle of the sea, dies and the younger brother, representing the principle of the land, succeeds in founding the country.

[Taro Obayashi]

The nature of Japanese mythology

Japanese mythology occupies a unique position among the mythologies of East Asian countries in that it systematically describes everything from the origin of the world to the founding of the dynasty. That is to say, systematic ancient mythology is only known in fragmentary form in China, and while the founding myths of ancient Korean countries are known, the creation myths equivalent to Japan's creation myths are not found in existing documents. In addition, the plot of the mythology unfolds according to a genealogy, and the vertical mythological system that transitions from the Age of Gods to the Age of Humans serves as the introduction to history, which is a major characteristic of Japanese mythology, even when compared to Greek mythology, which shows a remarkable horizontal development in the same period.

Japanese mythology contains elements from various traditions, but when viewed as a whole, Japanese mythology has a strong color of high culture, that is, ancient civilization. Even the myth of Izanagi and Izanami, which is said to have its background in the slash-and-burn cultivation of millet and the culture of the sea people, and its grand cosmology of the marriage and separation of Heavenly Father and Earth Mother, and the birth of the sun and moon from the eyes of the world giant (Izanagi), are part of the characteristic distribution of ancient civilizations around the world and their surrounding areas. The myth of Susanoo's slaying of the Yamata-no-Shinobi is also part of the dragon-slaying traditions that spread throughout the highly cultured areas of the Old Continent from Japan to Europe. Not only that, but the fact that the eventful lives of gods like Susanoo's play a major role in the mythological system is also characteristic of ancient civilization. Furthermore, the coexistence of two great tribes of gods, Amatsukami who lived in Takamagahara and Kunitsukami who lived in Ashihara no Nakatsukuni, and the three-function system of the god world similar to that seen in the Indo-European peoples (first function = kingship and religious government, second function = warriors and military, third function = producers and fertility), all presuppose that ancient Japanese society was already a society with a fairly developed function or hierarchical culture. In this way, the entire Japanese mythology recorded in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki has a highly cultural character, and primitive elements such as the myth of Kukimiyakohime are incorporated as part of this whole and given new meaning within that context.

[Taro Obayashi]

History of research into Japanese mythology

Research into Japanese mythology in Japan began with the revision and annotation of classical texts, with the achievements of Edo-period scholars of Japanese classics being particularly notable, but these were merely the beginnings of research into the meaning and lineage of mythology, and full-scale research only began in the 1900s. Following Takayama Chogyu, Anesaki Masaharu (Chofu), and Takagi Toshio (1876-1922), Matsumura Takeo (1884-1969), Matsumoto Nobuhiro (1897-1981), Mishina Shoei (1902-71), and Oka Masao all built the foundations for subsequent mythology research, and in the 1920s Matsumura attempted to synthesize all the research into Japanese mythology that had taken place up to that point.

In the study of Japanese mythology, the proportion of ethnologists with a strong interest in genealogy and history, or researchers with ethnological knowledge, has traditionally been large. However, since around 1970, there has been a growing interest in structural analysis, and at the same time, Korea and China have come to be seen as more important than ever before as subjects for comparative research on Japanese mythology.

[Taro Obayashi]

"The Structure of Japanese Mythology" by Obayashi Taryo (1975, Kobundo)" ▽ "Studies in Japanese Mythology, edited by Ito Kiyoshi and Obayashi Taryo, 3 volumes (1977, Gakusei-sha)" ▽ "Japanese and Chinese Mythology" by Ito Kiyoshi (1979, Gakusei-sha)" ▽ "Hollow Structure - The Depths of Japan" by Kawai Hayao (1982, Chuokoron-sha)" ▽ "Studies in Japanese Mythology" by Matsumoto Nobuhiro (1982, Heibonsha, Toyo Bunko) " ▽ "Studies in Japanese Mythology and Legends" by Takagi Toshio and Obayashi Taryo, revised edition, 2 volumes (1982, 1988, Heibonsha, Toyo Bunko)" ▽ "Royalty Myths of East Asia" by Obayashi Taryo (1984, Kobundo)" ▽ "Characteristics of Japanese Mythology" by Yoshida Atsuhiko (1985, Seido-sha) "The Formation of the World of Japanese Mythology" by Miyai Yoshio (1992, Shunjusha)" ▽ "The Philosophy of Japanese Mythology - A Study of Susanoo" by Kawai Hayao (1996, Minerva Shobo)" ▽ "Ancient History and Japanese Mythology" by Obayashi Taryo, Matsumae Ken, Mizuno Yu, Inoue Tatsuo, Imoto Eiichi, Tatsumi Kazuhiro, Yoshida Atsuhiko, Kanai Seiichi and others (1996, Yamato Shobo)" ▽ "Dictionary of Japanese Mythology edited by Obayashi Taryo and Yoshida Atsuhiko, edited by Aoki Shuhei, Kanda Norishiro, Saijo Tsutomu, Sasaki Takashi and Terada Keiko (1997, Yamato Shobo)" ▽ "The Origin of Japanese Mythology" by Yoshida Atsuhiko, new edition (1998, Seidosha)" ▽ "Understanding Japanese Mythology and Ancient Civilizations" by Iida Masataka (2004, Mon Shuppan)" ▽ "Japanese Mythology" by Ueda Masaaki (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "Japanese Gods" by Matsumae Ken (Chuko Shinsho)" ▽ "Izumo Mythology" by Matsumae Ken (Kodansha Gendai Shinsho)" ▽ "The Origins of Japanese Mythology" by Yoshida Atsuhiko (Kodansha Gendai Shinsho)" ▽ "Archaeology of Japanese Mythology" by Mori Koichi (Asahi Bunko)

Japanese Mythology/The Genealogy of Gods (1)
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Japanese Mythology/The Genealogy of Gods (1)

Japanese Mythology/The Genealogy of Gods (2)
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Japanese Mythology/The Genealogy of Gods (2)

Japanese Mythology/The Genealogy of Gods (3)
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Japanese Mythology/The Genealogy of Gods (3)

Japanese Mythology/The Genealogy of Gods (4)
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Japanese Mythology/The Genealogy of Gods (4)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

広義には、日本において伝承され記録された神話のすべてをさすが、普通は8世紀初頭に編纂(へんさん)された『古事記』や『日本書紀』をはじめとする古典に記された神話をさす。日本の古典神話体系の中軸をなしているのは、『古事記』上巻、『日本書紀』第1巻、第2巻に記された神代(かみよ)の物語、および『古事記』中巻の初めと『日本書紀』第3巻に述べられた神武(じんむ)天皇の建国についての物語であり、日本における王権が高天原(たかまがはら)に由来し、天皇家が国土の正統な支配者であることを基礎づけている。そのほか古風土記(こふどき)には、たとえば『出雲国(いずものくに)風土記』に国引き神話があるなど、記紀にみられない地方神話が記録され、また9世紀に成立したと思われる『先代旧事本紀(せんだいくじほんぎ)』には、物部(もののべ)氏の先祖の天降(あまくだ)り神話が記されている。これらの古典に記録された日本古代神話は豊富な内容をもっているが、それでも古代日本に存在したすべての神話が収められているわけではなく、主として天皇家とそれを取り巻く有力な氏の伝承に基づいており、中央の神話、つまり支配者の神話であるものが中心となっている。これ以外にも、地方の神話や民間の神話が多数あったに違いないが、それらは風土記神話に一部記録されただけである。また民間神話のなかには、中世になって形が変化し、語り物や伝説として初めて記録されたものもあると思われる。

［大林太良］

日本神話の構成

世界の初めから神武天皇の建国に至るまでの『古事記』や『日本書紀』に記された日本神話は、大きく分けて四つの神話群から成り立っている。『古事記』と『日本書紀』では神話の大筋はだいたい同じであるが、小さい相違はあり、ことに『日本書紀』では、本文のほかに一書に曰(いわ)くとして数種の別伝を並載しており、神名の表記法も記紀では異なっている。

　記紀神話体系における四つの神話群とは、「国生み神話」「高天原神話」「出雲神話」「日向(ひむか)神話」である。これらの神話に繰り返し現れる主題は、混沌(こんとん)のなかに秩序が設定されること、あるいは秩序による混沌の克服である。

［大林太良］

国生み神話

第一の国生み神話は、世界の始まりから天照大神(あまてらすおおみかみ)の誕生までを取り扱っており、伊弉諾尊(いざなぎのみこと)と伊弉冉尊(いざなみのみこと)が国土を生んだ神話が中心になっている。つまり、『古事記』によれば、天地が初めて開けたとき、高天原に天之御中主神(あめのみなかぬしのかみ)、高御産巣日神(たかみむすびのかみ)、神産巣日神(かむむすひのかみ)の三神が生まれ、次に、国土がまだ十分に形成されず、水の上に浮いた脂(あぶら)のようで、海月(くらげ)のように漂っていたとき、葦(あし)の芽のように萌(も)えあがるものに基づいて宇摩志阿斯訶備比古遅(うましあしかびひこじ)神と天常立(あめのとこたち)神が出現した。『日本書紀』本文は、これとは違って、天地が分離したのち、魚が水に浮かぶように国土が浮かび漂っていたが、天地の中間に葦の芽のようなものが生じ、これが国常立尊(くにのとこたちのみこと)であるという。次に、記紀ともに、このように国土が漂っている混沌状態のなかで伊弉諾・伊弉冉二神が、天神たちの命を受けて国土をつくることになったことを語っている。伊弉諾は父なる天を象徴し、伊弉冉は母なる大地を象徴していると思われる。この両神は、原初海洋中に最初にできた小さな淤能碁呂島(おのごろじま)に天降って結婚し、女神は大八洲(おおやしま)、つまり日本の国土をなす島々を生んだ（混沌中に秩序を設定）。両神は次いでさまざまの神を生んだが、火の神である軻遇突智(かぐつち)神を生んだために、女神は死んでしまった。男神は女神を連れ戻そうと黄泉(よみ)国（死者の国）に行ったが、結局果たせずに地上に帰り、筑紫(つくし)の日向(ひむか)の橘小門(たちばなのおど)の阿波岐(あわぎ)原で水浴して穢(けがれ)を祓(はら)った。そのとき男神の左の目からは太陽の女神の天照大神、右の目からは月神月読尊(つくよみのみこと)（月読命(つきよみのみこと)）が、また鼻からは嵐(あらし)神と思われる素戔嗚尊(すさのおのみこと)の3貴子が生まれた。火神誕生から3貴子誕生までは『古事記』や『日本書紀』一書第六に出ている形式によったが、『日本書紀』本文では、天照大神をはじめとする3貴子は、蛭児(ひるこ)とともに、伊弉諾・伊弉冉両神が生んだことになっている。

［大林太良］

高天原神話

第二は高天原神話である。素戔嗚尊は妣(はは)の国である根の国に赴く前に、姉の天照大神に会いに高天原にやってきた。弟神は、国を奪おうとする邪心をもって天上にきたのではないことを示すために姉神と誓約(うけい)をする。そのとき姉は3女神、弟は5男神をそれぞれ生んだが、生まれた5男神は姉の天照大神の子とされ、そのうちの1人、天忍穂耳尊(あめのおしほみみのみこと)は天照大神の跡継ぎに決められた。このあと素戔嗚尊が天上で乱暴を働いたことから、怒った女神は天岩屋（天岩戸）に隠れてしまい、世界は暗黒となるが、神々は相談して、女神を映す鏡をつくり、岩屋の外の榊(さかき)の木に掛けると、鏡に映った自分の姿を見て好奇心を抱いた女神は岩屋から現れて、光明がよみがえる。そして、素戔嗚尊は下界に追放された（混沌ののち、秩序の回復）。高天原神話は、天上での王権の危機が克服されたように、地上の王権の危機も克服されるだろうという神話的範型を提供するものであった。

［大林太良］

出雲神話

第三は出雲神話である。天降った素戔嗚尊は、出雲で八岐大蛇(やまたのおろち)を退治して、助けた奇稲田姫命(くしなだひめのみこと)と結婚し、蛇(へび)の体内から出てきた神剣、草薙剣(くさなぎのつるぎ)を天照大神に献上した。そして素戔嗚尊の子孫の大己貴(おおなむち)神（大国主命(おおくにぬしのみこと)）が少彦名命(すくなひこなのみこと)と協力して国造りをした。他方、高天原では、天照大神の子孫が統治すべき国である地上の豊葦原瑞穂国(とよあしはらのみずほのくに)が、ひどく乱れて騒然とした状態なのを見て、これを鎮めるため次々に地上に使者を派遣した。大己貴神は、結局高天原からの使者の要求に従って国土を天照大神の子孫に譲り、天照大神の孫である瓊瓊杵(ににぎ)尊が地上の支配者として天降ってきた。『古事記』によれば、そのとき瓊瓊杵尊は、天照大神の御霊代(みたましろ)の鏡（八咫鏡(やたのかがみ)）、草薙剣、八坂瓊曲玉(やさかにのまがたま)（八坂瓊勾玉）の三種の神器を持参したという。出雲の国譲りに続く天孫降臨ではあるが、天孫が天降った所は出雲ではなく、筑紫の日向の高千穂峰(たかちほのみね)であった。すなわち、天孫は幽(ゆう)の世界の出雲にではなく、顕(げん)の世界、つまり「朝日の直刺(たださ)す国、夕日の日照(ひて)る国」（古事記）に降ったのである。日本神話の体系からみると、天岩屋神話と天孫降臨神話の間に割り込んだのが出雲神話であると考えられる。出雲神話、ことに大国主命の活躍は、『古事記』において詳しく述べられている。

［大林太良］

日向神話

第四は日向神話である。天降った瓊瓊杵尊は山神の大山祇(おおやまつみ)神の女(むすめ)、木花開耶姫(このはなのさくやひめ)と結婚し、姫は燃える火中に三児を生んだ。その1人の山幸彦(やまさちひこ)（彦火火出見(ひこほほでみ)尊）は、兄の海幸彦から借りたたいせつな釣り針を失ってしまったので、それを捜しに海神(わたつみ)の宮へ行き、やがて海神の娘の豊玉姫(とよたまひめ)と結婚する。そして釣り針を取り戻して地上に帰った山幸彦は、兄を懲らしめ、兄は以後弟に服従して隼人(はやと)の先祖となった。豊玉姫は出産のために地上にきたが、出産のとき夫に見ることを禁じたにもかかわらず、鰐(わに)の姿（『日本書紀』では竜）となっているのを夫に見られたため、怒った姫は子供を置いて海に帰ってしまう。以来、海陸の交通は途絶した。瓊瓊杵尊は支配者として天降ることによって、また彦火火出見尊は隼人の祖である兄を服従させることによって、それぞれ政治的秩序を確立した。瓊瓊杵尊の天降り以降、原則として天地間の交通が終わり、豊玉姫が海中に去ることによって海陸の交通が絶えたが、このことはともに宇宙領域における秩序設定であった。さらに彦火火出見尊の孫の神武天皇は、日向から大和(やまと)に入って土着の勢力を征服し、王朝を打ち立てた。こうして混沌から秩序への転回は、建国という実を結んだ。

［大林太良］

日本神話の編纂

今日われわれが知っている日本古代神話の体系は、712年（和銅5）に太安麻呂(おおのやすまろ)が著した『古事記』と、720年（養老4）に舎人(とねり)親王が編纂した『日本書紀』に記されたものである。『古事記』や『日本書紀』の素材となった帝紀や旧辞は、6世紀ごろにつくられたと考えられており、それらの内容をなしている個々の伝承には、もっと古い時期にさかのぼるものが含まれているが、個々の神話の多くは、おそらく6世紀以前にすでに存在していたものであろう。

　神話体系が記録され、かつ国の歴史の巻頭に掲げられたこと、そしてそれが8世紀初めという時点においてであったことは、一方では民族のアイデンティティを確認し、他方では高まった天皇権を基礎づける努力の表れでもあったことを物語っている。つまり、白村江(はくそんこう)の敗戦（663）、壬申(じんしん)の乱（672）の動揺を経て、天武(てんむ)天皇は天皇権の確立に努め、稗田阿礼(ひえだのあれ)に『帝皇日継(ていおうのひつぎ)』（帝紀）と『先代旧辞』（本辞）を誦(よ)み習わせて『古事記』編纂の基礎をつくった。また、同じ天武天皇のときに、皇室の祖神、天照大神を祀(まつ)る伊勢(いせ)神宮も制度的に整備されていった。そして記紀神話体系は、天照大神の子孫の天皇が国土の正統な支配者であることを強く主張しているのである。

［大林太良］

日本神話の系統

記紀神話体系を構成している個々の神話は、さまざまな時代に種々の系統のものが、いろいろな文化の流れによって日本列島に運び込まれ、それがのちに体系化されたものであろう。つまり、素材となった個々の神話の大部分は海外に類話をもち、外から入ってきたものでも、記紀神話の体系にまとめられたのは日本においてであった。古典神話には、採集狩猟民文化にさかのぼると思われる神話はほとんどない。焼畑耕作文化に属していたと思われるのは、大気都比売(おおげつひめ)神（古事記）または保食(うけもち)神（日本書紀）の死体から作物が発生したという神話（死体化生(したいけしょう)神話）である。粟(あわ)、稗(ひえ)、麦、豆類などの組合せは、華南から西日本にかけての雑穀栽培型の焼畑耕作を背景としていたことを表し、さらにこの型の神話が東南アジアに多くみられ、中国南部にも痕跡(こんせき)が多いことから、縄文時代晩期に焼畑耕作とともに日本に入ってきたものと考えられる。ただし、日本神話では焼畑作物のほかに、水稲や蚕も同じ死体から発生しているところに問題点がある。

　水稲耕作は中国・江南からおそらく朝鮮半島南部を経由して日本に入り、ここから弥生(やよい)文化が始まったと思われる。この文化の流れによって入ったと思われるのは八岐大蛇退治の神話で、中国南部には古くから蛇退治の伝承があり、助けられた少女の名は奇稲田姫で、水稲耕作との結び付きを示している。伊弉諾・伊弉冉の国生み神話や海幸・山幸神話は海の世界との関連が深く、日本では海人(あま)がその担い手だったと考えられ、国生み神話は中国南部から東南アジアにかけての洪水神話と関係がある。つまり、洪水を生き残った兄妹が結婚して人類の祖となる形式の神話であるが、その一亜型として、洪水の発生を説かず、原初海洋に生まれた島に天から兄妹が天降って結婚し、人類の祖となる形式のものが、東南アジア島嶼(とうしょ)部に点々と分布している。その痕跡は中国・江南の民話にも認められる。また、海幸・山幸神話における失われた釣り針を海中へ求めに行く神話は、インドネシアから西部ミクロネシアにかけて類話が多く、中国にも異伝がある。おそらく江南の中心から海洋的な文化とともに西日本に入ったものであろう。

　これに反し、天皇家を中心とする支配者文化の神話は、朝鮮半島を経由して内陸アジアの牧畜民文化に連なる傾向が著しい。その一つは天孫降臨神話で、王権の究極の根拠は天にあるという考え方は、古代朝鮮諸国の建国神話にもしばしば現れており、たとえば桓因(かんいん)が徒3000人を率い、天符印(てんぷいん)3個を持って太伯(たいはく)山上に天降った神話は、天孫瓊瓊杵尊が多くのお供を連れ、三種の神器を持って天降った神話に比することができる。さらに、神武天皇が兄の五瀬命(いつせのみこと)とともに東征した神話は、沸流・温祚(おんそ)の兄弟による百済(くだら)建国神話と関連しており、どちらも海の原理を表す兄が死に、陸の原理を表す弟が建国に成功する。

［大林太良］

日本神話の性格

日本神話は、世界の起源から王朝の創設までを体系的に述べている点において、東アジア諸国の神話のなかでも特異な地位を占めている。すなわち、中国においては体系的な古代神話は断片的な形で知られているばかりで、古代朝鮮諸国についても建国神話は知られているものの、日本の国生み神話に相当する創世神話の部分は現存の文献に載っていない。また神話の筋が系譜に従って展開し、神代から人代へ移行するという縦の神話体系が歴史の導入部をなしていることも、ギリシア神話がいわば同時代的に横への展開を著しく示しているのと比べてみても、日本神話の大きな特徴となっている。

　日本神話にはさまざまな系統の要素が入っているが、全体として通観すれば、日本神話は高文化的、つまり古代文明的な色彩が強い。粟の焼畑耕作文化や海人の文化を背景としているのではないかといわれる伊弉諾・伊弉冉の神話にしても、天父地母の結婚とその別離、世界巨人（伊弉諾）の両眼からの日・月の誕生という壮大な宇宙論は、まさに世界の古代文明地帯とその周囲に特徴的に分布しているものの一環である。素戔嗚尊の八岐蛇退治の神話も、日本からヨーロッパまでの旧大陸の高文化地帯に広がる竜退治伝承の一環をなしている。そればかりでなく、この素戔嗚尊のように神々の波瀾万丈(はらんばんじょう)の生涯が神話体系のなかで大きな比重をもっていることも古代文明的である。また、高天原に住む天津(あまつ)神と葦原中国(あしはらのなかつくに)に住む国津(くにつ)神という二大神族の並立、およびその背後にあるインド・ヨーロッパ諸族にみられるのと同じような神界の3機能体系（第一機能＝王権・祭政、第二機能＝戦士・軍事、第3機能＝生産者・豊穣(ほうじょう)）は、すでに古代日本の社会が機能ないし階層文化のかなり発達した社会であったことを前提としている。このように、『古事記』や『日本書紀』に記された日本神話全体は高文化的な性格をもち、大気都比売神話のような未開な要素は、この全体の一部として包摂されてその文脈のなかで新しく意味が与えられている。

［大林太良］

日本神話の研究史

日本における日本神話の研究は、古典の本文校定や注釈という形で始まり、ことに江戸時代の国学者らの業績が大きいが、それらはあくまで神話の意味や系統の研究の萌芽(ほうが)であって、本格的な研究は1900年代に入ってからである。高山樗牛(ちょぎゅう)、姉崎正治(まさはる)（嘲風(ちょうふう)）、高木敏雄（1876―1922）に続き、松村武雄（1884―1969）、松本信広（1897―1981）、三品彰英(みしなしょうえい)（1902―71）、岡正雄らがその後の神話研究の基礎をつくったが、1920年代には、松村がそれまでの日本神話研究の総合を試みている。

　日本神話の研究においては、系統論や歴史への関心が強い民族学者、あるいは民族学的知識をもつ研究者の比重が伝統的に大きいが、1970年（昭和45）ごろからは構造分析への関心が強くなっており、一方、日本神話の比較研究の対象として、朝鮮や中国が以前にもまして重要視されるようになってきた。

［大林太良］

『大林太良著『日本神話の構造』（1975・弘文堂）』▽『伊藤清司・大林太良編『日本神話研究』全3巻（1977・学生社）』▽『伊藤清司著『日本神話と中国神話』（1979・学生社）』▽『河合隼雄著『中空構造――日本の深層』（1982・中央公論社）』▽『松本信広著『日本神話の研究』（1982・平凡社・東洋文庫）』▽『高木敏雄・大林太良著『日本神話伝説の研究』増訂版全2冊（1982、88・平凡社・東洋文庫）』▽『大林太良著『東アジアの王権神話』（1984・弘文堂）』▽『吉田敦彦著『日本神話の特色』（1985・青土社）』▽『宮井義雄著『日本神話の世界の形成』（1992・春秋社）』▽『河合隼雄著『日本神話の思想――スサノヲ論』（1996・ミネルヴァ書房）』▽『大林太良・松前健・水野祐・井上辰雄・井本英一・辰巳和弘・吉田敦彦・金井清一他著『古代史と日本神話』（1996・大和書房）』▽『大林太良・吉田敦彦監修、青木周平・神田典城・西条勉・佐佐木隆・寺田恵子編『日本神話事典』（1997・大和書房）』▽『吉田敦彦著『日本神話のなりたち』新装版（1998・青土社）』▽『飯田正孝著『日本神話解明と古代文明』（2004・門出版）』▽『上田正昭著『日本神話』（岩波新書）』▽『松前健著『日本の神々』（中公新書）』▽『松前健著『出雲神話』（講談社現代新書）』▽『吉田敦彦著『日本神話の源流』（講談社現代新書）』▽『森浩一著『日本神話の考古学』（朝日文庫）』