Barley - Mugi

Japanese: 麦 - むぎ

Wheat and barley are collectively called "mugi", and after the Meiji period, rye and oats, which were introduced later, were also included in the term. This concept of "mugi" does not exist in the West, and there is no English word that corresponds to "mugi". Wheat is native to the dry regions of Central and Western Asia, and is a winter crop that sprouts in the fall, survives the winter, and blooms and bears fruit in early summer. For this reason, wheat is cultivated in Japan as a secondary crop in paddy fields after rice cultivation and in fields after summer crops, thereby increasing land utilization and contributing to increasing food production. Wheat and barley are the oldest crops since humans began farming, and they were introduced to Japan from the continent at the same time as rice, or not very long after, and cultivation began there. It is said that rye and oats were gradually developed from weeds in wheat fields near their place of origin into crops.

Wheat and barley account for nearly half of the world's grain production and are the staple food of nearly half of the world's population. Wheat is the number one crop produced, while barley, oats, and rye rank fourth, sixth, and seventh, respectively, among cereals. Wheat and rye are milled into flour to make bread, barley is pressed (called rolled barley) or groats that are mixed with rice, and oats are used to make oatmeal. Barley is also important as an ingredient in alcoholic beverages such as beer and whiskey, and rye is also important as an ingredient in whiskey and vodka. Currently, barley, oats, and other grains are mainly used as feed for livestock.

In addition to the edible wheat and barley, many other plants in the Gramineae family are called "mugi" (barley). These include barley, barley, mouse barley, Job's tears, wheatgrass, and oats grass.

[Hoshikawa Kiyochika]

Folklore

The Kojiki, which describes the origin of the five grains, also says that "wheat grows in the shade," but wheat cultivation in Japan has a long history and there are various rituals and taboos. Many places avoid sowing on the days of the Ox, Tiger, and Dog, and one legend goes that long ago, when Kobo Daishi stole wheat from China, he was barked at by a dog and killed it, so he did not sow on the day of the Dog. In addition, sowing on the ridges is disliked, as it is said that it will result in deaths.

In Shimane, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi and other prefectures, the 20th of the New Year is called Barley New Year and people praise the wheat. In Shobara City, Hiroshima Prefecture, people go outside on the 20th after eating barley rice and grated yam for New Year and chant loudly, "This year's wheat is so good that it will split from your back to your belly" (your back will split when you're full). In Mishima, Hagi City, Yamaguchi Prefecture, people stick barley dumplings on bamboo poles and take them to the mountains, praising them by saying, "Other people's wheat is broken, but this wheat is good." In Ohara District, Shimane Prefecture (currently Unnan City), people lay down on straw raincoats in the wheat fields and chant, "Oh, my belly is so thick, my back is so split." In the islands of Munakata District, Fukuoka Prefecture, March 3 is called Barley Praise Festival and people go out to the fields and praise the quality of the wheat.

There is a ritual in which the first ears of wheat are offered to the hearth god. In the Chichibu region of Saitama Prefecture, on the first day of the Ox in June, the first ears of barley are harvested and offered to Okamasama, a ritual called "Wheat Harvest." It is said that the reason for offering on the day of the Ox is that cows brought wheat seeds from China in their talons. In Iyayama, Tokushima Prefecture, and Awaji Island, Hyogo Prefecture, a similar event is held on the day of the Dog in May. Furthermore, wheat harvest festivals with barley sweet sake are held in April on Akusekijima in the Tokara Islands in Kyushu, and in June in the Chichibu region. However, there are many places, such as the Asama-ko in Kanto (June 1st), and Rengesho (June 15th), Tanabata, and O-bon in Shimane and Tottori prefectures, where manju and udon noodles made from new wheat are offered to gods and Buddhas, showing a connection with wheat harvest rituals.

[Kensaku Uchida]

Wheat and humans

Wheat is a grain that played an important role in the formation and development of ancient Oriental civilizations, and has always maintained its importance as a major crop in the history of human culture, especially in the development of Western civilization. Wheat cultivation began in the foothills of Southwest Asia, and cultivated wheat (two types) have been excavated from Jarmo, Iraq (7000 BC), known as the oldest agricultural village ruins. Wheat cultivation seems to have started with a method of scattering sowing and harvesting ears with a stone sickle, and all early varieties were hulled wheat, and naked barley had not yet appeared. This is related to the fact that wheat was used as a flour food rather than a grain food until later. In other words, the stone sickle harvesting method resulted in the selection of wheat with uniform ear size and harvest time, which led to the emergence of improved varieties, and the scattering sowing method made it possible to cultivate large fields. Furthermore, combined with the use of livestock for ploughing, wheat productivity increased rapidly, and the development of cities and civilization occurred much faster than with agriculture using other cultivated plants. Wheat is also a relatively adaptable plant, so it is easy to grow in environments different from its native habitat. Eventually, along with the spread of civilization, it spread to various places, and through hybridization in the process, representative superior varieties such as bread wheat and macaroni wheat emerged, and wheat farming developed into an increasingly efficient form of agriculture, becoming the economic foundation of subsequent civilizations.

Since ancient times, people have formed various beliefs about wheat, an important crop. In the ancient Egyptian myth of Osiris, there is a story about wheat sprouting from a chopped up corpse and resurrecting. Osiris (the ruler of the underworld) was also the god of grain, and this not only signifies resurrection, but also the wheat harvest and fertility the following year. The ancient Greek myth of Demeter and Persephone also tells of a grain goddess with a motif of resurrection from the other world.

Even today, rituals and beliefs surrounding the last sheaf of harvested wheat are widely observed in traditional farming villages across Europe. These take various forms, but generally the last sheaf is used to create dolls, which are dressed in costumes and used as the central symbol of harvest festivals. These dolls are revered as they are believed to be inhabited by the spirits of the grain, and at the end of the festival they are either cast into the river or burned and scattered in the fields in prayer for a good harvest the following year. This also shares some commonalities with the idea of death and rebirth in ancient mythology, but the spirits of the grain are often believed to take the form of animals such as hares, goats, and cats, and rituals and sacrifices are sometimes performed for these animals.

[Kato Yasutake]

In China, impressions of wheat on pottery from about 7,000 years ago have been found at the Yangshao culture site at Dongguanmiao in Shan County, Henan Province. A large amount of carbonized wheat was excavated from a Neolithic site at Diaoyutai in Hao County, Anhui Province. The grains were small, only half the length of modern wheat. The characters 来 (lai) and 纥 (bak) for wheat can be seen on oracle bones from Xiaotun Village, Anyang County, Henan Province. 来 (lai) is a pictograph of wheat with ears sprouting on both sides, and 纥 (bak) is accompanied by 夂 (夂), meaning foot, giving it the meaning of "brought" from far away. The Book of Songs from the Zhou dynasty also contains quite a few songs about wheat. It is believed that wheat has been cultivated in large areas along the Yellow River and Huai River basins since prehistoric times. From the Han dynasty onwards, a distinction was made between autumn-sown "shukubaku" wheat and spring-sown "senbaku" wheat, and in addition to senbaku, the Guangzhi also lists wheat varieties such as red wheat, pinecone wheat, and shanti wheat, as well as awnless barley and rye, showing that differentiation of varieties was beginning to progress.

China has many wheat varieties, and between 1953 and 1954, 30,000 samples of wheat were collected from around the country and classified into over 6,000 types. The number of varieties of common wheat grown in the Yellow River basin alone exceeds 3,000.

Aegilops squarrosa L., a species of wheat involved in the creation of common wheat, was first discovered in the wild in China in 1953 on the banks of the Luo River in Luoshi County, Henan Province, an area with many Neolithic ruins. Similar examples have since been found in various parts of Henan and Shaanxi Provinces, and it is thought that the species may have been cultivated at the time.

It is estimated that wheat was introduced to Japan approximately 2,500 years ago, and seeds from the Late Jomon to Early Yayoi periods have been found in various places, such as barley at the Late Jomon site in Wakimisaki, Nagasaki prefecture, barley from the end of the Late Jomon period in Nabatake, Saga prefecture, and wheat from the Early Yayoi period in Itazuke, Fukuoka prefecture.

[Hiroshi Yuasa]

literature

As one of the five grains (rice, wheat, millet, foxtail millet, beans, etc.), the first volume of the Kojiki states that silkworms, rice, millet, red beans, wheat, soybeans, etc. were born from the remains of Ogetsuhime-no-kami, the deity in charge of food, and Volume 12 of the Manyoshu also states, "Even though the horses eating wheat from behind the horse fence are yelling abuse, I still long for them." In the Utsubo Monogatari, "Fujiwara no Kimi," it is stated that Miharu no Takamoto plants "millet, wheat, beans, and cowpeas, and other miscellaneous items in his field." The udon variety is called "wheat rope," and can be found in Volumes 19 and 22 of the Konjaku Monogatarishu. In "Hobutsushu" 5, there is a story that Shaka (Buddha's Treasure Collection) played around with the wheat of a rich man, and as a punishment he was turned into a donkey for 500 lives. In "Kokonchomonju" Volume 16, it is written that Fujiwara no Moronaga made Takamichi (Fine Piety) eat barley rice as a punishment for not attending school, and it seems that it was considered a simple food by upper-class aristocrats. In "Sorori Kyokabanashi", it is written that a warrior on horseback saw Saigyo (Pilgrim of the Seven Rivers) choking after eating wheat flour on the banks of the Nanase River in Shinano Province, and recited a poem saying, "How can a monk cross the Rokuse River alone?", to which the monk replied, "It is your horse that crosses the Eight Rivers." The seasonal theme is summer, and "Autumn of Wheat" is often written about.

[Teruhiko Komachiya]

[References] | Barley | Wheat

Wheat cultivation
It is one of the major grains that has been cultivated since ancient times. In Japan, Hokkaido accounts for about 60% of the national production .

Wheat cultivation

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

コムギとオオムギとをまとめて麦とよび、明治以降はその後伝来したライムギやエンバクなどをも麦に含めるようになった。この「麦」という概念は欧米にはなく、麦に相当する英語もない。麦類は中央・西アジアの乾燥地帯が原産で、秋に芽生え、越冬して初夏に開花し結実する冬作物である。このため麦類は日本では稲作のあとの水田や夏作物のあとの畑に、裏作物として栽培され、土地利用率を高め、食糧生産を高めることに寄与してきた。コムギ、オオムギは人類が農耕を始めたときからのもっとも歴史の古い作物であり、日本へもイネと同じかあまり遅れないころに大陸から伝来して、栽培が始められた。なおライムギとエンバクは、原産地付近で、麦畑の雑草からしだいに作物化されたといわれる。

　麦類は世界の穀物生産の半分近くを占め、人類の半数近くの主食とされる。コムギは作物中生産量が第1位、オオムギ、エンバク、ライムギは、穀物のうちでそれぞれ第4、6、7位を占めている。コムギ、ライムギは製粉してパン食とし、オオムギは圧偏（押し麦と称する）やひき割りにして米に混ぜ、エンバクはオートミールなどとする。またオオムギはビール、ウイスキー、ライムギもウイスキー、ウォツカなど酒の原料として重要である。オオムギ、エンバクなどは現在は主として家畜の飼料とされている。

　なお、食用作物の麦類のほか、イネ科の植物にはムギの名をもつものが多い。イヌムギ、ホソムギ、ネズミムギ、ハトムギ、コウボウムギ、ムギクサなどである。

［星川清親］

民俗

『古事記』の五穀の起源にも「陰(ほと)に麦生(な)り」とあるが、日本の麦作の歴史は古く、いろいろの儀礼や禁忌がある。丑(うし)、寅(とら)、戌(いぬ)の日に播種(はしゅ)を忌む所は多く、昔、弘法(こうぼう)大師が唐から麦を盗んでくるとき、犬にほえられて殺したために戌の日には播(ま)かないなどという伝承がある。また、畝(うね)の播き落としは死人が出るといって嫌う。

　島根、広島、山口県などでは正月20日を麦正月といい、麦褒(ほ)めをする。広島県庄原(しょうばら)市では、二十日(はつか)正月の麦飯とろろを食べてから外へ出、大声で「今年の麦はできがようて、背なから腹へ割れるべよう」（満腹で背中が割れる）と唱え、山口県萩(はぎ)市見島(みしま)では、麦の団子を竹に刺して山に持って行き、「よその麦はやぶれ麦、これの麦はええ麦」と褒めた。また島根県大原郡（現、雲南(うんなん)市）では、麦畑に蓑(みの)を敷いてその上に寝ころがり「やれ腹ふとや、背な割れや」と唱え、福岡県宗像(むなかた)郡地の島では、3月3日を麦褒め節供といって、畑に出、麦のできを褒める。

　麦の初穂を竈神(かまどがみ)に供える儀礼がある。埼玉県秩父(ちちぶ)地方では、6月初丑(はつうし)の日に「麦の刈りかけ」といって、大麦の初穂を刈ってオカマサマに供える。丑の日に供えるのは、中国から牛が麦の種子を爪(つめ)に挟んで持ってきたからだという。徳島県の祖谷山(いややま)や兵庫県淡路島などでは、5月の戌の日に同様の行事を行っている。また九州吐噶喇(とから)列島の悪石島(あくせきじま)では4月、秩父地方では6月に麦甘酒による麦の収穫祭が行われるが、関東の浅間講（6月1日）や島根・鳥取県の蓮華生(れんげしょう)（6月15日）・七夕(たなばた)・盆など、新小麦のまんじゅうやうどんを神仏に供える所も多く、麦の収穫儀礼との関連をみせている。

［内田賢作］

麦と人間

麦は古代オリエント文明の形成と発展に重要な役割を果たした穀物であり、その後の人類文化史のなかでもとくに西洋文明の流れにおいて、絶えず主要作物としての重要性を保ってきた。麦の栽培化は西南アジアの山麓(さんろく)地帯において始められ、最古の農耕村落遺跡として知られるイラクのジャルモ（前7000）からは、栽培されたコムギ（2種類）が出土している。麦栽培は、散布型の播種(はしゅ)と石鎌(いしがま)による穂刈りという方法で始められたらしく、初期の品種はいずれも皮麦で、まだ裸麦は出現していなかった。このことは、のちに至るまで麦が粒食ではなく、粉食として利用されることと関係する。つまり石鎌による収穫法は、結果として穂の大きさや収穫時期が均一な麦を選び取ることになって改良種が出現し、また散布型播種法は大規模な畑での農耕を可能にした。さらに家畜利用による犂(すき)耕作と相まって麦の生産性は急速に増大し、ほかの栽培植物による農耕に比べ、はるかに早く都市や文明への発展がみられた。また、麦は比較的適応性の高い植物であったため、自生地と異なる環境においても生育が容易であった。やがて文明の波及とともに各地に伝播(でんぱ)し、その過程での雑種交配を経てパンコムギやマカロニコムギなどの代表的優良品種が出現し、麦農耕はますます効率のよい農業へと発展して、その後の文明の経済的基盤となった。

　このように重要な作物である麦に対し、人々は古代からさまざまな信仰を形づくってきた。古代エジプトのオシリス神話では、切り刻まれた死体から麦が芽生えてよみがえるという話があるが、オシリス（冥界(めいかい)の支配者）は穀神でもあり、これはよみがえりと同時に麦の収穫と翌年の豊饒(ほうじょう)とを意味している。古代ギリシアにおけるデメテルとペルセフォネの神話でも、他界からのよみがえりをモチーフとする穀物の女神について語られている。

　現代においてもヨーロッパ各地の伝統的農村では、収穫された麦の最後の刈り束をめぐる儀礼や信仰が広くみられる。これはさまざまな変型をとるが、一般には最後の刈り束を用いて人形などをつくり、衣装を着せて収穫祭の中心的シンボルにする。この人形は穀物霊が宿るとみなして尊崇するが、翌年の豊作を祈願して祭りの最後には川に流したり、焼いて畑にまく。これも古代神話における死と再生の観念と共通する面がみられるが、穀物霊はしばしばノウサギ、ヤギ、ネコなどの動物の形をとると信じられ、これらの動物を対象とする儀礼や供犠(くぎ)が行われることもある。

［加藤泰建］

　中国では、約7000年前の焼物についた麦類の圧痕(あっこん)が、河南(かなん)省陝(せん)県東関廟(びょう)の仰韶(ぎょうしょう)（ヤンシャオ）文化期の遺跡から発見されている。安徽(あんき)省毫(ごう)県釣魚台(ちょうぎょだい)の新石器時代の遺跡からは多量の炭化小麦が出土した。その粒は小さく、現在のコムギの半分ほどの長さしかない。河南省安陽県小屯(しょうとん)村の甲骨文には麦を表す來(らい)と麥(ばく)の両文字が見られる。來とは穂が左右に出た麦の象形文字で、麥はそれに足を意味する夂を添え、遠くから「賚(もたら)」された意味をもたせ成立した。周代の『詩経』にも、麦類の歌が少なからず載る。黄河や淮河(わいが)流域には史前からかなりの面積で栽培されていたとみられている。漢代以降は秋播(ま)きコムギの「宿麦(しゅくばく)」と春播きコムギの「旋麦(せんばく)」が区別され、『広志』には、旋麦のほかに、赤小麦、半夏(はんげ)小麦、山提(さんてい)小麦などのコムギの品種およびオオムギの無芒(むぼう)の禿芒(とくぼう)大麦やライムギも名があがり、品種分化が進み始めたことがわかる。

　中国のコムギの品種は多く、1953～54年、全国から集めた3万点のコムギを6000余りの類型に整理している。黄河流域の普通小麦だけでも、その品種は3000を超える。

　普通小麦の誕生に関与したタルホコムギAegilops squarrosa L.は、1953年中国では最初に河南省盧氏(ろし)県の洛河(らくが)沿岸で野生がみいだされたが、そこは新石器時代の遺跡の多い所で、その後同様な例が河南省や陝西(せんせい)省の各地で知られ、当時は栽培利用されていたのではないかとみられている。

　日本に麦類が伝わったのは、およそ2500年前と推定され、長崎県脇岬(わきみさき)の縄文晩期遺跡のオオムギ、佐賀県菜畑(なばたけ)の縄文晩期終末のオオムギ、福岡県板付(いたづけ)の弥生(やよい)前期のコムギなど、縄文晩期から弥生前期にかけての種子が各地でみいだされている。

［湯浅浩史］

文学

五穀（米・麦・黍(きび)・粟(あわ)・豆など）の一つとして、『古事記』上巻には、食物をつかさどる大気都比売神(おおげつひめのかみ)の遺骸(いがい)から、蚕、稲、粟、小豆(あずき)、麦、大豆などが生じたとあり、『万葉集』巻12にも、「馬柵(うませ)越しに麦食(は)む駒(こま)の罵(の)らゆれどなほし恋しく思ひかねつも」などとみられる。『うつほ物語』「藤原の君」には、三春高基(みはるのたかもと)が畑に植えるものとして、「粟、麦、豆、ささげ、かくの如く雑役(ざふやく)の物あり」とあげている。うどんの類を「麦縄」といい、『今昔物語集』巻19、22などにみえる。『宝物(ほうぶつ)集』5には、釈迦(しゃか)があぎた長者の麦を戯れにとったために、その報いとして五百生の間ロバになった、という説話がある。『古今著聞集(ここんちょもんじゅう)』巻16には、藤原師長(もろなが)が孝道(たかみち)に不参の罰として麦飯を食べさせたとあり、上流貴族には粗食と考えられていたらしい。『曽呂利狂歌咄(そろりきょうかばなし)』には、西行(さいぎょう)が信濃(しなの)国の七瀬(ななせ)川のほとりで麦粉を食べてむせたのを見ていた馬上の武士が、七瀬川なのに「いかなれば法師は独りむせ（六瀬）渡るらむ」と詠みかけたのに、「君が馬こそやせ（八瀬）渡るらむ」と言い返したとある。季題は夏、「麦の秋」がよく詠まれる。

［小町谷照彦］

[参照項目] | オオムギ | コムギ

コムギの栽培

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