Star - Hoshi (English spelling)

Japanese: 星 - ほし(英語表記)star
Star - Hoshi (English spelling)

The word star

A celestial body that shines as a point, and does not appear as a disk like the sun or moon, is usually called a "star." Thus, the word "star" can broadly include stars, planets, satellites, comets, meteors, etc., but in the narrow sense it refers to the fixed stars that make up constellations. The English word "star" refers only to fixed stars. Planets are distinguished by the word "planet," and satellites by the word "satellite."

It goes without saying that each of the celestial bodies included in the broad definition of stars is the subject of astronomy, but we will leave the natural science descriptions to the individual sections and in this section we will discuss the folklore, culture, and beliefs associated with the stars.

[Goro Ishida and Asahi Fujii]

Stars and horoscopes

Many ancient peoples believed that the souls of the dead would rise to the heavens and become stars. Some peoples believed that when a strong person died, they became bright stars, and when a weak person died, they became dim stars.

The Babylonian Empire in the Orient believed several thousand years before Christ that the movements of celestial bodies have a great influence on human society. Excavated cuneiform clay tablets reveal the movements of the five planets (Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) and the various judgments that follow them. The Babylonians observed Venus in particular, and predicted wars, earthquakes, floods, storms, and other disasters from its position. In order to study the movements of the celestial bodies in detail, they observed the zodiacal belt, which is the path of the sun and other celestial bodies, and divided the zodiac into 12 constellations corresponding to the position of the sun during the 12 months of the year. This became the origin of horoscope astronomy, which predicts a person's fate from the celestial phenomena at the time of birth.

Babylonian star knowledge was transplanted to Greece, where 48 constellations were created, named after various people, animals, and objects that appear in Greek mythology. The 12 zodiac signs were also established in their present form: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces. A person's fate is determined by which constellation the sun is in on their birthday, but to make more complex and detailed judgments, the close relationships between the moon, five planets, and the 12 constellations were defined, and the constellation rising on the eastern horizon at the time of birth was also given importance.

In China, the movement of the moon is important, and the entire sky is divided into 28 unequal parts corresponding to the movement of the moon in a 27-day cycle, which are called the 28 constellations. These include Pleiades, Hyades, Orion (the three stars), Liu (Delta Hydra), and Scorpio (Antares). In addition to the 28 constellations, 1,166 stars in the sky are named after the systems within the imperial court. These include the Imperial Throne where the Great Emperor resides, the Northern Pole Purple Garden, which is the royal palace, Taibien, which is the seat of the twelve feudal lords, and the City Garden, which is the administrative and legislative body. In terms of details, there are even things like a Tenkyu (stable), a Tenkon (toilet), a Gaihei (outer wall), a Tenshi (kitchen), a Gyokusei (well), and a Shuki (banquet hall). This is because they believed that the same administrative system exists in the heavens as in the earthly world, and that what happens on earth is first indicated by celestial phenomena. For this reason, they recorded all natural disasters such as solar and lunar eclipses, guest stars (the appearance of unfamiliar stars), comets, great meteors, and auroras as a warning to the Heavenly Emperor. Specializing in predicting and calculating solar and lunar eclipses was an important job of the astronomy professors. This can be called Eastern natural disaster astrology, as opposed to Western horoscope astrology.

The above Chinese knowledge of astronomy was directly adopted in Japan, and as a result, many Japanese history books contain many records of natural disasters (especially solar eclipses, lunar eclipses, and planetary conjunctions).

[Goro Ishida and Asahi Fujii]

Star Name

In Europe, stars are given names that originate from Greek mythology and other sources. In China, stars are also given names that are related to astrology, as mentioned above. In contrast, it was believed that there were no Japanese names for stars in Japan since ancient times. This is because Japan is an agricultural country, and farmers did not look at the stars much at night because they were tired from hard work during the day. Nojiri Hoei, inspired by the argument of Shinmura Izuru, a scholar who opposed this theory, spent his 90-year-old life collecting Japanese names for 700 types of stars.

The names of gods representing the stars in ancient Japan include Amatsuakaboshi and Amatsumikaboshi, both of which refer to Venus.

In the mid-Heian period, Minamoto no Shitagō wrote the Wamyō Ruijushō, which lists 15 items: the sun, the yatagarasu, the moon, the crescent moon, the full moon, the halo, the stars, the morning star, the Chou Kō, Hikoboshi, Tanabata-tsume, the shooting star, the comet, the Subaru star, and the Amanokawa. The yatagarasu is the sun, the morning star is Jupiter, and the Chou Kō is Venus. Sei Shonagon's "The Pillow Book" states, "The stars are the Pleiades, the Hikoboshi, and the evening stars. If the stars are a little strange, even if they have no tails, then they will fly away."

The Pleiades (in Taurus) are a highly visible star. There is an analogy that relates to agriculture in particular: "The Pleiades and the Mandoki flour are eight-gou." "Mandoki" refers to the hour of the horse, or the highest point in the sky, and teaches that if buckwheat seeds are sown at dawn when the Pleiades is high in the zenith, the harvest will be good. Because of its shape, the Pleiades is given names such as the Sextuplet Star, the Battledore Star, the Issho Star, and the Bract Star. In contrast, the Hyades in Taurus are called the Hanging Bell Star because of their shape, or the Ato Star because they appear after the Pleiades.

The Big Dipper is also a conspicuous star sequence. Because it is located toward the north, it is visible for a long period of time, and in esoteric Buddhism, ceremonies to worship the Big Dipper and the North Star were popular. The name Big Dipper does not appear in the Wamyō Ruijūshō, but the Wakan Roeishū contains the poem “The Big Dipper, Travelling Wild Geese in Front of the Big Dipper” (Liu Yuanshu). The Big Dipper, the Seven Squares Star, and the seven stars all appear in waka poetry from the Heian period. The Shiso star is a representation of the Big Dipper with the four and three digits lined up on a dice, and its name is taken from the special names for the dice used in the game of Sugoroku: San-ichi, Saburoku, Shitchi, Shiso, Guichi, and Gushi. This name also appears in the Edo period books "Butsurui Shoko" and "Wakan Sansai Zue." In some regions, it is written as the Seven Stars, and is called Hi-cho-no-hoshi or Nana-yo-no-hoshi. Due to its shape, it is also called Hisha-boshi (ladle star), Kagi-boshi (key star), and in the Seto Inland Sea region, Kaji-boshi (rudder star).

The star at the end of the handle of the Big Dipper is called the Hagun star, and was favored by warriors in the Middle Ages. Today, it can be seen on the pattern of the military fans held by warriors on the stage in plays. This star is also called the Kensaki star. Due to its diurnal motion, it makes one full revolution in each of the twelve zodiac signs over the course of a day and night, and in Onmyodo, it is said that the god of gold resides in the tip of the sword, and that if one fights in the direction indicated by the tip of the sword, they will be defeated and will be at a disadvantage in court cases and competitions. The second star from the end of the handle of the Big Dipper is called Kaiyang in China, and there is a small star right next to it, called the Ho star or Soe star.

The Cowherd and Weaver Girl of Tanabata are decorated and worshipped on Kikkoden (an event held on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar), the Weaver Girl star is called Weaver Girl and Tanabata, and the Cowherd star is also called Hiko star and Inukai star. In the Wamyō Ruijūshō, it is also read as Inukaihoshi.

The North Star was called the North Star or Myoken. This is because in Onmyodo, the North Star is likened to the reverence of the king and was called Myoken Bosatsu. During the Heian period, Buddhist lamps were offered to the North Star, and the Shingon sect held a festival of the seven stars (the North Dipper), and the North Star and the North Dipper came to be worshiped at the same time. Since then, the North Star and the North Dipper have often been confused. The North Star is a single star, and is also called the Rat Star. This is because it can be seen in the direction of the Rat, that is, due north.

The two stars in Ursa Minor, which are near the North Star, are called emissaries and guardians. This means that the Big Dipper revolves around the North Star in diurnal motion and aims for the North Star, but the two stars located between the Big Dipper and the North Star scare it away or keep watch.

The W-shaped constellation Cassiopeia is known by names such as Anchor Star, Yamagata Star, and Goyo no Star. Orion's Delta, Epsilon, and Zeta stars are known throughout Japan as the Three Stars, and are also known by names such as Sankou, Sancho no Hoshi, Sanjo-sama, Sandai-sho, Kase-boshi, and Hazanoma. Orion's Alpha (Betelgeuse) and Beta (Rigel) are beautiful bright stars with a contrast of red and white, and are known as Heike-boshi and Genji-boshi. Orion as a whole is also known as Tsuzumi-boshi, as the star is likened to a drum.

The stars alpha and beta of Gemini are called the two stars, the gatepost, the crab's eye, or the cat's eye. Sirius, the alpha star of Canis Major, is the brightest star in the entire sky and is also called the blue star or the great star.

In Japan, Alpha Carinae (Canopus) is considered a rare star because it only appears close to the horizon. In China, it is called the Antarctic Old Man Star, and it was said that "When the Old Man Star appears, peace prevails, but when it is not seen, war breaks out." In Japan, in the fourth year of the Shotai era (901) of Emperor Daigo, the era name was changed to Engi because the Old Man Star was seen the previous year. Among fishermen, this star is called Mera Star or Osho Star, and is said to be the spirit of someone lost at sea. In Hyogo Prefecture, it is called Naruto Star or Awaji Star, based on the direction from which it can be seen. It is also known as the Lazy Star because it sets as soon as it appears in the southern sky; in Okayama Prefecture it is called Sanuki's Lazy Star, and in Kagawa Prefecture it is called Tosa's Lazy Star, after the place name of the direction from which it can be seen.

There are many Japanese names related to Venus among the planets. Akaboshi (morning star) and Yutsuzu (evening star) are widely used, but there are also other names such as Ichibanboshi (first star), Yoi no Myojin (evening god), Ka wa tare boshi (who is that star), and also Nushito boshi (flying star) because it sets and rises early in the morning. It is also called Meshitaki boshi (rice cooker star) and Kashiki nakase (cooker crying star) because it rises early at dawn.

There are various names for meteors, such as shooting stars, rushing stars, flying stars, missing stars, and star weddings, but in ancient times the term wedding star (Yobaihoshi) was widely used.

As mentioned above, the Japanese names for stars are interesting from a folkloric perspective, as many of them are names that are closely related to the realities of farming and fishing and are rooted in the lives of ordinary people. However, it seems that ancient Japanese people were not as conscious of the stars as they were of the sun and moon. Apart from the names of stars that were introduced from China, there are few star names that have spread throughout Japan, and they are characterized by a strong local character. As a result, there are few mythological tales about the stars, and religious beliefs are not seen much except for the star festivals of Esoteric Shingon Buddhism.

[Goro Ishida and Asahi Fujii]

Changing scientific understanding of stars

In ancient Babylonia and ancient Egypt, the stars were revered as transcendent deities and feared as supernatural beings that controlled human destiny, and it is believed that this is the basis for the birth of astrology. In Greece, the constellations were embellished with mythology, and it was commonly believed that the starry sky was the world of the gods, but natural philosophers beginning with the Ionian school began to think of the stars as objects in the natural world. It was the philosopher Anaxagoras who believed that the sun was a scorching hot stone.

The Alexandrian astronomer Hipparchus (2nd century BC) completed the star catalog by recording the positions and brightness of the stars. The original star catalog, which records 1,000 stars and 45 constellations, has been lost, but it was reprinted in Ptolemy's Almagest, and its appearance has been passed down to the present day. At that time, quadrants and sextants collimated with the naked eye were used, and the accuracy of angles was within the second.

Such geometrical research into stellar coordinates continued in the Arabic culture of Islamic countries, but the stars were merely used as scales to measure the positions of planets, and questions about the true nature of the stars were slow to emerge. In 1609, Galileo began observing the heavens with a homemade telescope and discovered that the Milky Way is a collection of faint stars. This discovery had great significance in stellar astronomy, as it taught us that there are countless stars invisible to the naked eye, and that these are widely distributed even in the depths of space. It was Harry's discovery of proper motion in 1718 that taught us that stars are not fixed in space, but move through it, and since then, the idea that stars move through space has become a commonly accepted social concept.

The idea that the Milky Way Galaxy is made up of a collection of stars began with explorations using W. Herschel's large reflecting telescope at the end of the 18th century, and research on this subject progressed further with the advent of larger telescopes. A precise understanding of stars was achieved in 1838 when Bessel measured the annual cycles of stars. The distances of stars were accurately understood, and it was determined that the Sun is just one of many ordinary stars. The evolution of stars was achieved through theoretical research into their energy sources. In the 1940s, spectroscopic research on stars was advanced, and stars were elucidated as natural entities, and it is no exaggeration to say that all previous knowledge of stars was completely rewritten.

[Goro Ishida and Asahi Fujii]

Star-related traditions and beliefs

Since ancient times, humans have looked up at the stars on clear nights. Of all the natural phenomena that surround us, the stars are particularly mysterious and have always stirred people's imaginations. Many of the constellation names commonly used today come from Greek mythology, which can be traced back to the star worship of the ancient Orient. There are few cultures in the world that have such a systematic and numerous myths about the stars, but many ethnic groups have given their own names to particularly prominent stars and constellations and developed various legends. Constellations are often likened to gods, animals, or objects, mainly based on their shapes, but there are many different ways of looking at them. For example, in Greek mythology, the particularly prominent "Seven Stars of the Big Dipper" (Ursa Major) in the northern sky is said to have been transformed into a great bear by a nymph named Callisto who became pregnant with Zeus' child and incurred the wrath of the goddess of the moon and the hunt, and some Native Americans also see it as a bear. In China, it is likened to the Big Dipper, a ladle hanging in the northern sky, and in many rural areas of Japan, it is called hisakuboshi or shakushiboshi. In Scandinavia and Babylonia, it is likened to a carriage carrying a god or king, and in Arabia, it is likened to a coffin. In areas north of the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the Big Dipper never sinks below the horizon throughout the year, so it is often likened to a giant bear chained to the sky (Greece), bandits (Kyrgyzstan), or young women wandering around looking for revenge for their parents (Iran). In China, the Big Dipper is paired with the Nanto in Sagittarius, and was considered to be a heavenly official who deals with human death.

One of the prominent constellations in the southern sky is "Scorpio," but it has many different names: the Greeks accepted a legend of Oriental origins and called it a scorpion, while the Chinese saw it as a celestial blue dragon, and the Japanese liken its tail to a fish hook and its triangular head to a palanquin carrier or balance. In a wide area of ​​Polynesia, the S-shaped tail is called "Maui's Fish Hook" and is also likened to a fish hook, and in Tahiti the head is a rhinoceros beetle.

One of the most famous legends related to stars is the Tanabata legend, which is widely known in China and elsewhere. This legend is, of course, related to the stars Vega and Altair, and was introduced to Japan around the Nara period.

Stars were also important as clues to direction, especially among seafaring and nomadic peoples who traveled the oceans and the great plains. For example, the Polynesians, who excelled in navigation and accomplished great voyages of immigration in small boats, are known to have had a great deal of knowledge about the stars. Hawaii and Tahiti are more than 3,000 kilometers apart, and they relied on the North Star (Hoku Paa'a) to navigate this distance, measuring its height with observation devices made from gourds. Japanese fishermen and sailors also used the North Star as a guide for their navigation, and it was called Nenohoshi, Ateboshi, Hitotsuboshi, etc. The North Star is located near the north pole of the sky and hardly changes its position throughout the night, so it is used as a guide to direction, but in Egypt, where astronomy knowledge was well developed, when building pyramids, some people dug a tunnel on the line connecting the inner chamber to the North Star, and used this as the center line.

Stars are closely related to agriculture as they signal the seasons. In Japan, many areas believe that the Pleiades (the star cluster) in particular is the star that signals the time for sowing. A tribe in Borneo divides the year into eight periods based on agricultural work, and it is the height of the Pleiades that signals the time for cutting trees, setting fires, sowing seeds, and so on. In ancient Egypt, the rising of Sirius predicted the rise of the Nile River. The rising of the Nile River caused flooding, but it also brought fertile soil, and Sirius was believed to be the incarnation of Isis, the goddess of agriculture. The Ainu of Hokkaido called the Vega star the "guest star," and its appearance signaled the arrival of spring, and called the Pleiades "Aruwan-no-chiu," and by watching it rise in the east, they learned the salmon fishing season.

Furthermore, stars were also considered to be omens of good and bad luck. In particular, in ancient Babylonia, astrology developed, which attempted to predict human destinies from the positions and movements of the stars. It was introduced to Greece during the Hellenistic period, and then spread to India and China, where it was systematized in the Sanskrit calendar and the Book of Changes. Of course, in addition to such systematized astrology, there are other customs around the world that see the stars as omens. Examples include the avoidance of comets, solar eclipses, and lunar eclipses. In China, Antares in the constellation Scorpio was considered an unlucky star because of its red light, and was feared as a sign of great unrest in the country. In Europe, Sirius was avoided because of its intense light, as it was believed to bring drought and fever. In Japan, Canopus in the constellation Argo (Carina), which hangs low in the southern sky, was called Meraboshi or Dainanboshi, and was seen by fishermen as a sign of severe storms. In Japan, there are many legends that regard this star and Sirius as stars of vengeful spirits. Meanwhile, in China, Canopus is called the Antarctic Old Man Star, and it is believed that a year in which it can be seen will bring peace to the world. In addition, in Japan, stars such as Antares in the constellation Scorpio are called balance stars in connection with agriculture, and it is believed that a year in which it rises high will bring a good harvest.

As such, there are countless legends about the stars from all over the world, but generally speaking, people with simple cultures such as hunter-gatherers do not have many systematic myths or knowledge about the stars. The names of celestial bodies and constellations also tend to be limited to only the most prominent ones. In contrast, it was mainly in highly civilized regions that beliefs and knowledge about the stars developed systematically. The star worship and astrology of ancient Babylonia are perfect examples, and extensive myths about the stars were also born in Greece, which was influenced by them. The solar calendar was created in Egypt, and it was further developed into an elaborate calendar system through the observation of Sirius. In the New World, the Maya and Inca also had advanced astronomical knowledge, calendar systems, and astrology. Systematized myths and knowledge were introduced to Japan via China, but Japanese legends about the stars are mostly simple and based on the lifestyle of farmers and fishermen.

[Masahisa Segawa]

Myths and beliefs

Belief in stars, celestial bodies other than the sun and moon, is well known in the ancient world, especially in Greece, Rome, Babylonia, India, China, and the Maya of Mexico, but it was also practiced to some extent by indigenous peoples in various places, such as the San people (formerly known as the "Bushmen"), Eskimos, and Inuits, who believed that stars were the spirits of dead people. Also, among Native Americans and Polynesians, only conspicuous stars such as the Milky Way, the Big Dipper, the Evening Star, and the Morning Star were the subject of myths and superstitions.

A group of stars that form bundles around the ecliptic, the path of the sun, is called a constellation, and in China it is called a Shuku. As is known from the Greek myth of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, the custom of relating these to various gods, heroes, animals, and other figures and telling myths and popular beliefs originated from Babylonian astrology. Astrology is a method of divination that was born from the belief that the colors and movements of the five planets (fire, water, wood, metal, and Saturn), which move differently from the fixed stars, comets, the sun, and the moon, as well as their relationships with the constellations of the fixed stars, affect the fate of emperors and individuals, and even the fortunes of nations and societies. With the development of this method, astronomical observation techniques, observatories, and later astronomy were born. In Babylonia, China, Silla in Korea, and the Maya, astrological observatories were established along with observatories. The 12 Babylonian constellations (zodiac signs) and the 28 Chinese constellations were revered in connection with astrology. In Japan, star worship became popular through Onmyodo and Shukuyodo before the Nara period, and the Big Dipper in particular is revered as a god in charge of longevity, and is called Hokushin or Myoken. In Korea, the Big Dipper has also been regarded as a god of longevity since ancient times, and is worshiped at sacred altars such as the Seven Star Hall and Seven Star Rock to pray for safe childbirth.

[Ken Matsumae]

"A Collection of Star Myths and Legends" by Nojiri Hoei (1969, Koseisha Kouseikaku)""Religion of the Stars" by Yoshida Mitsukuni (1970, Tankosha)""Cultural History of the Constellations" by Hara Megumi (1982, Tamagawa University Press)""The History of the Constellations in China" by Osaki Shoji (1987, Yuzankaku Publishing)"The Path of Ancient Astronomy - Astronomical Phenomena in History" by Saito Kuniharu (1990, Hara Shobo)"Man and the Universe - A Brief History of Astronomy, Thinking about the Earth" by Aoki Shinko (1994, United Church of Christ in Japan Publishing Bureau)""The Orion Mystery - The Mystery of the Great Pyramids and Star Worship" by Robert Bauval and Adrienne Gilbert, translated by Kondo Takafumi (1995, NHK Publishing Association)""Messages from Space - Astronomical Anecdotes from History" by Saito Kuniharu (1995, Yuzankaku Publishing)""Ancient History in the 21st Century: Erased Star Beliefs - The Flow of Jomon Culture and Ancient Civilizations" by Enomoto Izumo and Omi Masakazu (1996, Sairyusha)""Stars and Worship in the Jomon Period" by Hotta Sohachiro (1997, Chuo Art Publishing)""The Steps to the Gods - The Mysteries of Ultra-Ancient Astronomical Observations" by Anthony Aveni and translated by Usa Kazu (1999, Nihon Bungeisha)""Gods of the Starry Sky - Myths and Legends of the 88 Constellations in the Sky" by Nagashima Akihiro et al. (1999, Shinkigensha)""The Secrets of the Constellations - The Relationship between Stars and People" by Maekawa Hikaru (2000, Koseisha Koseisha)""The Origin of Calendars and Constellations" by Sakagami Tsutomu (2001, Kawade Shobo Shinsha)""Living with the Stars - An Attempt at Astronomical Folklore" by Kitao Koichi (2001, Win Kamogawa)""Folklore of the Stars" by Nojiri Hoei (Kodansha Academic Library)""Stars and Legends" by Nojiri Hoei (Chuko Bunko)" ▽ "The Origin of Astrology" by Yajima Fumio (Chikuma Gakugei Bunko)

[References] | Sagittarius | Pisces |Hydra| Taurus | Canis Major | Ursa Major |Virgo| Aries | Cancer | Scorpio |Leo| Pleiades | Libra | Gemini | Aquarius | Capricornus |Carina| Anaxagoras | Argo | Altair | Almagest | Antares | Ionian School | Isis |Egyptian Science | Orion | Aurora | Cassiopeia | Canopus | Callisto | Galilei | Greek Mythology | Sirius | Harry | Hershel | Babylonia | Hippocalpina Lucos | Hyades | Ptolemy | Pleiades | Vega | Bessel | Horoscope | Tanabata | Twenty-eight Mansions| Wamyo Ruijusho | Big Dipper| North Star | Astrology | Conjunction | Wakan Sansai Zue|Wakan Roeishu | Proper Motion | Saturn | Milky Way|Telescope | Sun | Solar Calendar | Space | Shukuyodo | Comet | Star | Planet | Niimura Izuru | Solar Eclipse | I Ching |Constellation| Star Catalog | Star Worship | Calendar | Moon | Lunar Eclipse | Jupiter | The Pillow Book | Mercury | Meteor | Mars | Names of Things | Altair |Weaver Girl | Satellite | Nojiri Hoei | Venus | Galaxy | Onmyodo | Ecliptic | Zodiac

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

星ということば

普通、太陽、月のように円板状に見えず、点状に輝く天体を「星」という。したがって星ということばには、広くは恒星、惑星、衛星、彗星(すいせい)、流星などを含む場合もあるが、狭義には星座をつくる恒星をさす。英語のスターstarの場合は恒星のみをさす。惑星はプラネットplanet、衛星はサテライトsatelliteということばで区別する。

 広義の星に含まれるそれぞれの天体が天文学の対象であることはいうまでもないが、自然科学的な記述はそれぞれの項目に譲り、この項では、星の民俗、文化、信仰などについて展開する。

[石田五郎・藤井 旭]

星と占い

古代の諸民族には死者の魂が天上に昇り、星になると信じていたものが多い。強者が死ぬと明るい星に、弱者が死ぬと暗い星になると考えた民族もある。

 天体の運動が人間社会に大きな影響力を与えるということは、紀元前数千年にオリエントのバビロニア王国で信じられており、日月五星(太陽、月、水星、金星、火星、木星、土星)の動き、およびそれに従うさまざまな判断が、出土した粘土板の楔形(くさびがた)文書から明らかである。バビロニアではとくに金星が観測され、その配置から兵乱、地震、洪水、暴風などの災害を予言した。また天体の動きを詳細に調べるために、とくに太陽その他の天体の通り道である黄道(こうどう)帯の天域が観察され、1年12か月の太陽の位置に対応して黄道を12の星座に分割することが行われていた。そしてこれが誕生時の天象から人の運命を占断するホロスコープ天文学の淵源(えんげん)となった。

 バビロニアの星の知識はギリシアに移植され、ギリシア神話に登場するさまざまな人物、動物、器物の名を冠した星座が48個も制定された。黄道十二宮も、おひつじ、おうし、ふたご、かに、しし、おとめ、てんびん、さそり、いて、やぎ、みずがめ、うお、と今日の形に確定された。誕生日に太陽がどの星座に位置しているかによって人の一生の運命が決まるが、さらに複雑、詳細な判断をするために、月、5惑星と12の星座との親疎関係を定め、また誕生時刻に東の地平線に昇ってくる星座を重要視するなどした。

 中国では、月の運動を重要視し、周期27日余りの動きに対応して全天を28の不等な部分に分割し、二十八宿(にじゅうはっしゅく)とよんだ。昴(ぼう)宿(プレヤデス)、畢(ひっ)宿(ヒヤデス)、参宿(オリオン座三つ星)、柳(りゅう)宿(うみへび座δ(デルタ))、心宿(さそり座アンタレス)などがこれである。二十八宿に付属して、全天1166星が宮廷内の制度に対応した名前でよばれる。天皇大帝のいる帝座、王宮である北極紫微垣(しびえん)、十二諸侯の府である太微垣(たいびえん)、行政立法府である天市垣(てんしえん)がある。細目では、天厩(てんきゅう)(うまや)、天溷(てんこん)・天廁(てんそく)(いずれも便所)、外屏(がいへい)(外の塀)、天屎(てんし)・外厨(がいちゅう)(台所)、玉井(ぎょくせい)(井戸)、酒旗(しゅき)(宴会場)などまで用意されている。これは地上界と同じ行政機構が天上界にも存在し、地上に起こることはまず天象によって示されると信じたことによる。そのため、日食・月食や客星(見慣れない星の出現)、彗星や大流星、赤気(オーロラ)などの天変は天帝の戒めとしてもれなく記録した。日食・月食の推測計算を専門に行うことは天文博士(はかせ)の重要な仕事であった。これは西洋のホロスコープ占星術に対し、東洋の天変占星術ということができる。

 以上のような天文学に関する中国の知識はそのまま日本に取り入れられた。そのため日本の多くの歴史書には天変現象の記録(とくに日食、月食、惑星の合(ごう))が多い。

[石田五郎・藤井 旭]

星の名前

ヨーロッパではギリシア神話などに由来する名前が星につけられている。また中国でも前述のような占星術も関係して星に名前がつけられている。これに対し、日本には古来星の和名がない、と信じられていた。これは日本は農業国であり、農民は激しい昼間の仕事の疲れのため、夜はあまり星を見なかった、という説による。この説に反発した学者の新村出(しんむらいずる)の論説に感じた野尻抱影(のじりほうえい)は、その九十有余歳の生涯をかけて700種の星の和名を採集した。

 日本古来の星を表す神の名としては、天津赤星(あまつあかぼし)と天津甕星(みかぼし)があり、二つともに金星を示す。

 平安時代の中期、源順(みなもとのしたごう)が著した『倭名類聚抄(わみょうるいじゅしょう)』のなかには「日、陽烏(やたがらす)、月、弦(ゆみはり)月、満月、暈(かさ)、星、明星(あかほし)、長庚(ゆうつづ)、牽牛(ひこぼし)、織女(たなばたつめ)、流星(よばいぼし)、彗星(ははきぼし)、昴星(すばるぼし)、天河(あまのかわ)」の15項目がある。陽烏は太陽、明星は木星、長庚は金星である。清少納言(せいしょうなごん)の『枕草子(まくらのそうし)』には「星はすばる、ひこぼし、夕づつ。よばい星少しおかし、尾だになからましかば、まいて」とある。

 すばる(おうし座のプレヤデス)はよく目につく星である。とくに農事に関係して、「すばるまんどき粉八合」のたとえがある。「まんどき」は午(うま)の刻、すなわち南中のことで、明け方にすばるが天頂高くあるときにソバの種を播(ま)くとよくとれることを教えている。すばるはその形から、六連星(むつらぼし)、羽子板星、一升(いっしょう)星、苞(つと)星などの名がある。これに対し、おうし座のヒヤデスはその形から、釣鐘(つりがね)星、あるいはすばるに続いて出てくるところから、後(あと)星の名がある。

 北斗七星(ほくとしちせい)もよく目につく星列である。位置が北に寄っているため見える時間が長く、仏教の密教では、北斗、北辰(ほくしん)を祀(まつ)る行事が盛んであった。『倭名類聚抄』には北斗の名は出てこないが、『和漢朗詠(ろうえい)集』には「北斗星前横旅雁」(劉元叔)の詩句が出てくる。北斗、七桝(ななます)星、七つの星は平安時代の和歌に現れる。四三(しそう)の星は、北斗七星をさいころの四の目と三の目とを並べた形に見立てたもので、双六(すごろく)遊びのさいころの目の特殊なよび方である三一(さんいち)、三六(さぶろく)、四一(しっち)、四三(しそう)、五一(ぐいち)、五四(ぐし)のなかからとった名であり、江戸時代の『物類称呼』や『和漢三才図会』にもこの名が出てくる。七曜の星と書いて、ヒチヨウノホシ、ナナヨノホシとよぶ地方もある。またその形から柄杓(ひしゃく)星、鍵(かぎ)星、瀬戸内地方では舵(かじ)星ともよぶ。

 北斗の柄(え)の先の星は破軍(はぐん)星とよばれ、中世の武人に好まれた。今日では芝居の舞台で、武人が手にする軍扇の模様にみられる。この星は剣先(けんさき)星ともよばれる。日周運動により一昼夜の間に十二支の各方位を一周するが、陰陽道(おんみょうどう)では、この剣先に金神(こんじん)が宿るとし、この剣先が示す方向に向かって戦えばかならず敗れ、公事(くじ)(裁判)、勝負事には不利であるという。北斗の柄の先から2番目の星は、中国では開陽とよばれているが、そのすぐそばに小さな星があり、これは輔(ほ)、あるいは輔(そえ)星とよばれる。

 七夕(たなばた)の牽牛(けんぎゅう)、織女は乞巧奠(きっこうでん)(陰暦7月7日の行事)に飾り祀られ、織女星は織女、七夕とよばれ、牽牛星は彦(ひこ)星、犬飼(いぬかい)星の名がある。『倭名類聚抄』にも以奴加比保之(いぬかいほし)と訓じている。

 北極星は、北辰、妙見(みょうけん)とよばれた。陰陽道で北極星を尊王(そんのう)に見立て、妙見菩薩(ぼさつ)としたためである。平安時代に北辰に法燈(ほうとう)を捧(ささ)げ、真言(しんごん)宗では七曜(北斗)の星祭(ほしまつり)が行われ、北辰・北斗は同時に祀られるようになり、以後、北辰と北斗とが混同されることが多い。北極星は一つ星、子(ね)の星の名もある。これは子(ね)の方角、つまり真北に見えるからである。

 北極星のそばにあるこぐま座の二つの星を遣(や)らい星、番(ばん)の星とよぶ。これは北斗七星が日周運動で北極星の周りを回って、北極星をねらっているのを、北斗七星と北極星の中間に位置する二星が、追い払う、番をしているという意味である。

 W字形のカシオペヤ座は錨(いかり)星、山形(やまがた)星、五曜の星などの名がある。オリオン座のδ(デルタ)、ε(イプシロン)、ζ(ゼータ)星は日本各地で三つ星とよばれているほか、三光(さんこう)、三丁の星、三星様(さんじょうさま)、三大星(さんだいしょう)、かせ星、稲架の間(はざのま)といった名もある。オリオン座のα(アルファ)星(ベテルギウス)、β(ベータ)星(リゲル)は赤、白の対比の美しい輝星であり、平家星、源氏星の名がある。またオリオン全体を鼓に見立てて、鼓(つづみ)星の名もある。

 ふたご座のα、β星は二つ星、門杭(かどぐい)、または蟹の目(かにのめ)、猫(ねこ)の目とよばれる。おおいぬ座α星(シリウス)は全天で第一の輝星で青星(あおぼし)、大星(おおぼし)の名がある。

 りゅうこつ座α星(カノープス)は日本では地平線すれすれにしか出ないため、珍しい星とされた。中国では南極老人星とよばれ、「老人星現れば治安く、見えざる時は兵起こる」といわれた。日本では醍醐(だいご)天皇の昌泰(しょうたい)4年(901)、その前年に老人星が見えたことから年号を延喜(えんぎ)と改めた例がある。この星は漁師の間では布良(めら)星、和尚(おしょう)星の名でよばれるが、海で遭難した人の霊であるという。兵庫県ではこの星の見える方角から、鳴門(なると)星、淡路(あわじ)星の名がある。また南の空に出るとすぐに沈んでしまう横着な星ということから横着星の名もあり、岡山県では讃岐(さぬき)の横着星、香川県では土佐の横着星と、星が見える方向の地名をつけてよぶ。

 惑星の名前では金星に関する和名が多い。明星(あかぼし)、夕星(ゆうつづ)が広く使われているが、一番星、宵(よい)の明神(みょうじん)、彼(か)は誰(た)れ星(ぼし)、また出入りが早いところから飛び上がり星、盗人(ぬしと)星などもある。明け方早く出ることから飯炊(めした)き星、炊夫(かしき)泣かせという名もある。

 流星は流れ星、奔(はし)り星、飛び星、抜け星、星の嫁入りなどがあるが、古くは婚(よば)い星(与八比保之(よばいほし))が普及している。

 以上のように星の和名は、農耕漁労の実生活に密着して、庶民の生活に根ざした名前が多く使われており、民俗学的に興味深い。しかし、古来の日本人は太陽や月ほどに星を意識していなかったのではないかと思われる。中国から渡来した星名以外には、日本国内に全般的に流布した星名が少なく、ローカル性の強いことが特徴である。したがって星に関する神話的説話も少なく、宗教的信仰は、真言密教の星祭を除いてはあまりみられない。

[石田五郎・藤井 旭]

星に関する科学的認識の変遷

古代バビロニア、古代エジプトでは星々は超越神として尊敬され、人間の運命を支配する超自然的な存在として畏怖(いふ)され、ここに占星術が誕生する基盤があると考えられている。ギリシアに入り、星座が神話によって装飾され、一般的通念として星空は神の世界とされていたが、イオニア学派に始まる自然哲学者により、星を自然界の物体として考える傾向が現れてきた。太陽は灼熱(しゃくねつ)の石であるとしたのは哲学者アナクサゴラスである。

 星の配置・明るさを記録し、星表を完成したのはアレクサンドリア時代(紀元前2世紀)の天文学者ヒッパルコスで、1000個の星、45の星座を記録する星表は、原表は失われたが、プトレマイオスの『アルマゲスト』に再録されてその面影を今日に伝えている。当時は肉眼視準の四分儀、六分儀を使用、角度で秒までの精度を保持している。

 このような星の座標の幾何学的研究は以降、イスラム教国のアラビア文化のなかで進められたが、恒星はあくまで惑星の位置を測るための目盛りにすぎず、星の本質にかかわる問いかけはなかなか現れなかった。1609年ガリレイが手製の望遠鏡で天体観測を始め、天の川が微光星の集まりであることを発見したことは、恒星の天文学上の意義が大きい。それは肉眼では見えない数多くの星が存在し、しかもそれらがはるかかなたの宇宙の深部まで広く分布していることを教えたからである。星が空間に固定したものでなく、空間を運動することを教えたのは1718年ハリーの固有運動の発見であり、これ以降、星の空間運動が社会通念となった。

 星が集まってつくる銀河系宇宙という考えは18世紀末のW・ハーシェルの大反射望遠鏡による探査によって始まり、大口径望遠鏡の出現によりその研究はいっそう進められた。星というものを正確に理解したのは1838年のベッセルの恒星の年周測定によるものである。恒星の距離が正確に理解され、太陽もこれら恒星のなかの平凡な一つにすぎないことが確定されたのである。星の進化はそのエネルギー源に関する理論的研究によって果たされた。1940年代に星の分光学的研究が進められ、星が自然界の実体として解明され、それまでの恒星に関するすべての知識が塗り変えられた、といっても過言でない。

[石田五郎・藤井 旭]

星に関する伝承と俗信

人類は古来、晴夜には天空に星を仰ぎ見てきた。それは、人間を取り巻く諸々の自然現象のなかでもとりわけ神秘に富んだものであり、人々の想像力をかき立てずにはおかなかった。今日一般に用いられている星座名の多くはギリシア神話によるものであり、それはさかのぼって古代オリエントの星辰崇拝(せいしんすうはい)につながっている。これほど体系的で、しかも多数の星についての神話をもつ文化は世界的にも少ないが、とくに顕著な星・星座については多くの民族が独自に名称をつけ、さまざまな伝承を発達させてきた。星座については、主としてその形状から神や動物や器物などに見立てるが、その見立て方は多様である。たとえば北天のとくに顕著な「北斗(ほくと)七星」(おおぐま座)を見ても、ギリシア神話では、カリストという名のニンフがゼウスの子を身ごもって月と狩りの女神の怒りに触れ、大熊(おおぐま)の姿に変えられたのだとしており、また北米先住民の一部にもこれを熊の姿に見立てるところがある。中国では「北斗」すなわち北天にかかる柄杓(ひしゃく)の形に見立て、日本の農村でもひしゃくぼし、しゃくしぼしなどという所が多い。また北欧やバビロニアではこれを神や王の乗った車に見立て、アラビアでは柩(ひつぎ)に見立てている。北斗七星は北半球の中緯度以北の地域では、1年を通して地平下に没することがないため、天につながれた大熊(ギリシア)、盗賊(キルギス)、親の仇(あだ)をねらって巡り歩いている娘たち(イラン)などに見立てられることも多い。中国では「北斗」は、いて座の「南斗」と対(つい)をなし、人間の死を扱う天の役人とされた。

 南天の顕著な星座の一つに「さそり座」があるが、この名称もさまざまで、ギリシア人がオリエント起源の伝承を受け入れてこれをサソリとしたのに対し、中国人はこれを天の青竜と見なし、日本では尾部を釣り針、頭部の三角形を駕籠(かご)かつぎや天秤(てんびん)に見立てている。ポリネシアの広い地域では尾部のS字形を「マウイの釣り針」とよんでやはり釣り針に見立てているし、タヒチでは頭部をカブトムシとしている。

 星に関する伝説としてとくに有名なものに七夕(たなばた)伝説があり、中国を中心に広く分布している。これはいうまでもなく織女(しょくじょ)星(ベガ)と牽牛(けんぎゅう)星(アルタイル)にちなむ伝説だが、日本へは奈良時代前後に入った。

 星は方角の手掛りとしても重要であり、ことに大海原や大平原を旅する航海民族や遊牧民族の間ではそうであった。たとえば航海術に長(た)け、小船での大航海移民を成し遂げたポリネシア人たちは、星についての多くの知識をもっていたことで知られる。ハワイ―タヒチ間は3000キロメートル以上もあるが、この間を彼らは北極星(ホク・パアア)を頼りとし、ヒョウタンでつくった観測器でその高さを測りながら正確に航海した。日本の漁民や船乗りにとっても、北極星はその航海の目安とされ、ねのほし、あてぼし、ひとつぼしなどとよばれた。北極星は天の北極付近にあって一晩中ほとんどその位置を変えないから、方角の目安とされているが、天文知識の発達したエジプトでは、ピラミッドをつくる際に、内室と北極星とを結ぶ線上にトンネルを掘り、これを中心線としているものがあるという。

 星は季節を知らせるものとして、農耕とも関係が深い。日本ではとくにすばる(プレヤデス星団)が播種(はしゅ)の時期を知らせる星と考えられている地域が多い。ボルネオ島のある部族では、農作業によって1年を8期に分けているが、焼畑の伐採、火入れ、播種などの時期を知らせるのは、やはりすばるの高さであるという。また、古代エジプトでは、シリウスの昇る時刻によってナイル川の増水を予知した。ナイル川の増水は氾濫(はんらん)を引き起こしたが、沃土(よくど)をももたらし、シリウスは農耕の女神、イシスの化身とも信ぜられていた。あるいは、北海道のアイヌたちは織女星を「客人姿の星」とよび、その出現で春の訪れを知り、すばるを「アルワン・ノチウ」とよんで、それが東方に昇るのを見てサケの漁期を知った。

 さらに星は吉凶の前兆ともされた。とくに古代バビロニアでは、星の位置、運行から人間の運命を予知しようとする占星術が発達し、それはヘレニズム期にギリシアへ入るとともに、インドや中国にも伝播して梵暦(ぼんれき)や易経のなかに体系化されたという。もちろん、そのように体系化された占星術のほかにも、星を前兆とみる風習は世界各地にある。彗星、日食、月食などを忌むことはその例である。中国ではさそり座のアンタレスがその赤色の光ゆえに不吉な星とされ、国に大乱の訪れる前兆として恐れられた。また、ヨーロッパではシリウスがその強烈な光ゆえに干魃(かんばつ)、熱病をもたらすものとして忌まれた。日本では、南天に低くかかるアルゴ座(りゅうこつ座)のカノープスは、めらぼし、だいなんぼしなどとよばれ、漁民から大時化(しけ)の前兆とされた。また日本では、この星やシリウスを怨霊(おんりょう)の星とみなす伝承も少なくない。一方、中国ではカノープスを南極老人星と称し、これが見える年は天下太平であるとした。日本ではこのほか、農耕との関連で、さそり座のアンタレスなどをてんびんぼしとよび、これが高く昇る年は豊作であるとした。

 このように、世界各地の星に関する伝承は無数にあるが、一般的にいうと、採集狩猟民のような単純な文化をもつ人々においては、星についてあまり体系的な神話や知識は知られていない。天体や星座の名称も、ごく顕著なもののみに限られる傾向がある。これに対し、星についての信仰や知識が体系的な発達を遂げたのは、主として高文明地域においてである。古代バビロニアの星辰崇拝と占星術はまさにその例であり、その影響を受けたギリシアでも星に関する大掛りな神話が生まれた。エジプトでは太陽暦がつくりだされ、さらにそれはシリウスの観察によって精緻(せいち)な暦法に発展した。新大陸でも、マヤやインカでは高度な天文知識、暦法、占星術が行われた。日本へも中国経由で体系化された神話や知識が入ったが、日本の星に関する伝承は、農漁民の生活感に基づく素朴なものが多い。

[瀬川昌久]

神話と信仰

太陽と月以外の天体である星の信仰は、古代世界ではとくにギリシア、ローマやバビロニア、インド、中国、メキシコのマヤなどがよく知られているが、各地の先住民族でも多少は行われており、サン人(かつての俗称「ブッシュマン」)やエスキモーおよびイヌイットなどでは、星は死んだ人間の霊がなったものと信じられている。またアメリカ先住民やポリネシア人などでは、天の川、北斗七星、宵の明星(よいのみょうじょう)、明の明星(あけのみょうじょう)など、目だつ星だけが神話や俗信の対象となった。

 太陽の通路としての黄道(こうどう)を中心にいくつかの束をなしている恒星の群を星座といい、中国では宿(しゅく)とよぶが、ギリシア神話のおおぐま座・こぐま座などの話で知られるように、これをいろいろな神や英雄、動物などの姿に結び付けて神話や俗信を語ったりする風習は、もともとはバビロニアの占星術が源泉となっている。占星術は、恒星とは動き方の違う5惑星(火、水、木、金、土星)や彗星(すいせい)、日月などの色や動き、またそれらと恒星の座との関係が帝王や個人の運命、さらには国家や社会の運勢にまで影響するという観想から生まれた卜占(ぼくせん)法であり、この発達とともに天文観測の技術や天文台、そして後の天文学が生まれた。バビロニア、中国、朝鮮の新羅(しらぎ)、マヤなどでは、天文台とともに占星台も設けられていた。バビロニアの12の星座(十二宮)や中国の二十八宿の星は、占星術と結び付いて尊崇されていた。日本では、星辰信仰は奈良時代以前から陰陽道、宿曜道(すくようどう)などを通じて盛んとなり、とくに北斗七星は寿命をつかさどる神として、北辰とか妙見とかよばれて尊崇されている。朝鮮でも北斗は古くから寿命の神とされ、七星堂、七星岩などの聖壇で安産祈願などに信仰されている。

[松前 健]

『野尻抱影著『星の神話・伝説集成』(1969・恒星社厚生閣)』『吉田光邦著『星の宗教』(1970・淡交社)』『原恵著『星座の文化史』(1982・玉川大学出版部)』『大崎正次著『中国の星座の歴史』(1987・雄山閣出版)』『斉藤国治著『古天文学の道――歴史の中の天文現象』(1990・原書房)』『青木信仰著『人間と宇宙――天文学小史 地球を考える』(1994・日本基督教団出版局)』『ロバート・ボーヴァル、エイドリアン・ギルバート著、近藤隆文訳『オリオン・ミステリー――大ピラミッドと星信仰の謎』(1995・日本放送出版協会)』『斉藤国治著『宇宙からのメッセージ――歴史の中の天文こぼれ話』(1995・雄山閣出版)』『榎本出雲・近江雅和著『21世紀の古代史 消された星信仰――縄文文化と古代文明の流れ』(1996・彩流社)』『堀田総八郎著『縄文の星と祀り』(1997・中央アート出版社)』『アンソニー・アヴェニ著、宇佐和通訳『神々への階――超古代天文観測の謎』(1999・日本文芸社)』『長島晶裕他著『星空の神々――全天88星座の神話・伝承』(1999・新紀元社)』『前川光著『星座の秘密――星と人とのかかわり』(2000・恒星社厚生閣)』『坂上務著『暦と星座のはじまり』(2001・河出書房新社)』『北尾浩一著『星と生きる――天文民俗学の試み』(2001・ウインかもがわ)』『野尻抱影著『星の民俗学』(講談社学術文庫)』『野尻抱影著『星と伝説』(中公文庫)』『矢島文夫著『占星術の起源』(ちくま学芸文庫)』

[参照項目] | いて座 | うお座 | うみへび座 | おうし座 | おおいぬ座 | おおぐま座 | おとめ座 | おひつじ座 | かに座 | さそり座 | しし座 | すばる | てんびん座 | ふたご座 | みずがめ座 | やぎ座 | りゅうこつ座 | アナクサゴラス | アルゴ座 | アルタイル | アルマゲスト | アンタレス | イオニア学派 | イシス | エジプト科学 | オリオン座 | オーロラ | カシオペヤ座 | カノープス | カリスト | ガリレイ | ギリシア神話 | シリウス | ハリー | ハーシェル | バビロニア | ヒッパルコス | ヒヤデス | プトレマイオス | プレヤデス | ベガ | ベッセル | ホロスコープ | 七夕 | 二十八宿 | 倭名類聚抄 | 北斗七星 | 北極星 | 占星術 | | 和漢三才図会 | 和漢朗詠集 | 固有運動 | 土星 | 天の川 | 天体望遠鏡 | 太陽 | 太陽暦 | 宇宙 | 宿曜道 | 彗星 | 恒星 | 惑星 | 新村出 | 日食 | 易経 | 星座 | 星表 | 星辰崇拝 | | | 月食 | 木星 | 枕草子 | 水星 | 流星 | 火星 | 物類称呼 | 牽牛 | 織女 | 衛星 | 野尻抱影 | 金星 | 銀河系 | 陰陽道 | 黄道 | 黄道十二宮

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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