Corporation income tax

Japanese: 法人税 - ほうじんぜい(英語表記)Corporation income tax
Corporation income tax

A tax levied on corporations with corporate income as the tax base. In the United States, it is considered a type of income tax and is called corporate income tax. In Japan, corporate tax refers to the national corporation tax based on the Corporation Tax Act, but there are other taxes that are levied directly or indirectly with corporate income as the tax base, such as the prefectural and municipal corporation inhabitant tax and the prefectural corporation business tax, which can also be classified as a type of corporate income tax in the broad sense. The local corporation inhabitant tax is levied with the national corporation tax amount as the tax base, so it is not a direct tax on corporate income, but rather a tax on corporate income.

Japan's national corporation tax was established in 1899 (Meiji 32) as a type 1 income tax under the provisions of the Income Tax Law, and was separated from the income tax to become a corporation tax in 1940 (Showa 15). Initially, it was a pay-as-you-go system, but the tax system was reformed in the spring of 1945 to introduce a self-assessment system for corporations with capital of 5 million yen or more, and in 1947 (Showa 22) it was fully transferred to the self-assessment system. In addition, the tax system was reformed in 1950 based on the Shoup recommendations to introduce the blue return system. During the period of high economic growth in fiscal 1970 (Showa 45), corporate tax revenue accounted for 33.0% of total national taxes, far exceeding the ratio of income tax revenue to income tax revenue of 31.2%. However, in recent years, income tax revenue has come to significantly exceed corporate tax revenue, and in fiscal 2005 (Heisei 17), the ratio of income tax revenue was 31.8%, while the ratio of corporate tax revenue was only 27.1%.

[Masatoshi Hayashi]

Basis of taxation

Although corporate income tax is a significant source of tax in developed countries, there are many unclear points regarding the basis for the tax.

First, regarding the nature of corporations, there has traditionally been a conflict between the fictitious theory and the real theory. In Anglo-Saxon countries with a strong tradition of individualism, the corporate fictitious theory was dominant, which considered only natural persons to be the true tax bearers and that corporations were merely a means for natural person shareholders to pursue profits. The foundation of Japan's current corporate tax system is based on the Shoup recommendations, which clearly adopted the corporate fictitious theory. In contrast, the corporate real theory considers corporations to be separate entities from their natural shareholders. The reason for this is often cited as the phenomenon of separation of management and ownership, which is common in modern large corporations.

If the corporate reality theory is adopted, then corporate income is taxed because the corporation has the ability to pay, just as personal income tax is levied on individuals. In this case, the ability to pay is unique and different from the ability of individual shareholders to pay, and going a step further, it is justified to apply a progressive tax rate, as in the personal income tax system. On the other hand, if the corporate fictitious theory is adopted, then corporate income tax, like withholding tax, is merely an advance payment of personal income tax. Ultimately, it is the natural person taxpayers who are the shareholders who have the ability to pay. Therefore, there is no way to avoid the relationship with the personal income tax system.

The basis for corporate income tax can also be explained from the profit theory. In other words, in the case of the fictitious corporate theory, the profits enjoyed by individual shareholders through the corporate organization are taxed at the corporate level, but in the actual corporate theory, corporations, which are real entities different from individual shareholders, receive the benefits of various public services and therefore bear corporate income tax as compensation for them.

The tax rates for income for business years beginning on or after April 1, 1990 were unified to a basic rate of 37.5% and a reduced rate of 28% for small and medium-sized enterprises. Previously, for example, separate tax rates were applied to retained earnings and dividends, with the basic rate of 40% and 35%, respectively, and the reduced rate of 29% and 26%. In the midst of fierce competition in the international market and prolonged economic stagnation due to economic globalization, the size of the corporate tax burden affects the competitive conditions of companies. For this reason, corporate tax rates have been significantly reduced in each country, and in Japan, there are also demands from the business community for a substantial tax cut. In the 1998 tax reform, the basic tax rate for income for each business year imposed on domestic ordinary corporations and unincorporated associations, etc., was reduced to 34.5%, and the reduced tax rate for so-called small and medium-sized corporations with capital or investment of 100 million yen or less was reduced to 25%, and from April 1, 1999, it was further reduced to 30% and 22%, respectively.

Reductions in corporate tax rates are a global trend, and the average top corporate tax rate in the 26 OECD countries fell from 41% in 1986 to 35% in 1991, 33% in 1995, and 32% in 2000. Between 1986 and 2000, Ireland reduced its top tax rate by 27 percentage points, from 51% to 24%, followed by Sweden, which reduced it by 24 percentage points, from 52% to 28%. Corporate tax, in the broad sense of the term as a tax based on corporate income, also includes the corporate tax rate of local inhabitant taxes. The standard tax rate is 5.0% of the corporate tax amount for prefectural inhabitant tax and 12.3% for municipal inhabitant tax, so if converted into tax rates on corporate income corresponding to 30% and 22% since 1999, they would be 1.5% for prefectural inhabitant tax and 3.69% for municipal inhabitant tax, respectively, in the case of the basic tax rate, and 1.1% and 2.706% in the case of the reduced tax rate for small and medium-sized enterprises. Local taxes are given the discretion to select tax rates in order to promote local autonomy, but the corporate inhabitant tax, which is a corporate income tax, has a maximum tax rate of 6% for prefectural inhabitant tax and 14.7% for municipal inhabitant tax.

In principle, only profitable corporations pay corporate tax, and loss-making corporations are not taxed, so during an economic downturn, the number of loss-making corporations increases and corporate tax revenue falls sharply. Even if a corporation does not fall into the red, the income of a profitable corporation fluctuates wildly, and corporate income tax is characterized as a tax with unstable revenue that is subject to high volatility. Closely related to the basis for corporation tax, loss-making corporations also enjoy the benefits of various infrastructures that are provided using tax revenue as a source of funds. Therefore, there is strong pressure for loss-making corporations to pay a certain amount of tax, and this tendency can be seen in the system change that partially changed the prefectural tax that was levied based on income, except for four industries (electricity, gas, life insurance, and non-life insurance), to a form of external taxation. In addition, in the tax reform of fiscal 2003, it was decided to introduce a form of external taxation on corporate business tax for corporations with capital of more than 100 million yen (implemented from fiscal 2004). The tax rates to be applied from fiscal 2008 are 2.9% for income over 8 million yen, 2.2% for income between 4 million and 8 million yen, and 1.5% for income under 4 million yen. A tax rate of 0.48% is applied to the added value of the external tax base, and 0.2% is applied to the capital base, so external taxation is applied.

[Masatoshi Hayashi]

[Reference item] | Extent basis taxation | Business tax | Income tax | Tax

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

法人所得を課税標準として、法人に課される税。アメリカでは所得税の一種として考えられており、法人所得税とよばれる。日本で法人税というときには法人税法に基づく国税の法人税をさすが、法人所得を直接または間接に課税標準として課税される税には、ほかにも道府県および市町村の法人住民税法人税割と道府県税である法人事業税があり、これらの税も広義の法人所得税の一つとして分類できる。地方税の法人住民税は国の法人税額を課税標準として課税するから、直接ではないが、法人所得に課税するものである。

 日本の国税としての法人税は、1899年(明治32)に所得税法の規定により第一種の所得税として創設され、1940年(昭和15)に所得税から独立して法人税となったものである。当初は賦課課税方式であったが、1945年春の税制改正で資本金500万円以上の法人に申告納税方式が取り入れられ、1947年(昭和22)には全面的に申告納税方式に移行した。また、1950年のシャウプ勧告に基づく税制改正では青色申告の制度も取り入れられた。高度成長期の1970年度(昭和45)には国税総額に占める法人税の税収額は33.0%であり、所得税収の比率の31.2%を凌駕(りょうが)するほどであったが、近年においては所得税収のほうが法人税収をかなり上回るようになり、2005年度(平成17)においては、所得税収の比率が31.8%であるのに対し、法人税収の比率は27.1%にとどまっている。

[林 正寿]

課税の根拠

法人所得税は先進諸国においてかなり重要な税源であるにもかかわらず、その課税の根拠については不明な点が多い。

 まず、法人の性格について、従来から擬制説と実在説とが対立している。個人主義の伝統の強いアングロ・サクソン系の諸国においては、自然人のみを租税の真の負担者とみなし、法人は自然人である株主の利潤追求のための単なる手段にすぎないという法人擬制説の考え方が支配的であった。日本の現行の法人税制度の根幹はシャウプ勧告に基づいているが、そこでは明確に法人擬制説が採用されていた。これに対して法人実在説は、法人を株主の自然人とは別個の実在とみなす。その理由としてしばしば指摘される事実が、現代の大法人に一般的にみられる経営と所有の分離という現象である。

 法人実在説を採用するならば、法人所得に対して課税するのは、個人に対して個人所得税を課税するのと同様に、法人に支払能力があるからである。この場合、支払能力は個人株主の支払能力とは異なる独自のものであり、さらに一歩進めて、個人所得税制度と同じく累進税率を適用することも正当化される。他方、法人擬制説を採用するならば、源泉徴収税と同じく法人所得税は個人所得税の前払いにしかすぎない。支払能力を有するのは、究極的には株主である自然人の納税者である。したがって、個人所得税制度との関係を回避して通ることはできない。

 また、法人所得税課税の根拠は、利益説からも説明できる。すなわち、法人擬制説の場合には、個人株主が法人組織を通じて享受する利益に対して法人の段階で課税するのであるが、法人実在説においては、個人株主とは異なる実在としての法人が各種公共サービスの便益を得ているから、その対価として法人所得税を負担するのである。

 1990年(平成2)4月1日以降開始の事業年度の所得に対する税率は一本化されて基本税率は37.5%、中小企業に対する軽減税率は28%となったが、以前にはたとえば留保分と配当分に対して別の税率が適用され、基本税率はそれぞれ40%と35%、軽減税率は29%と26%であった。経済のグローバル化に伴う国際市場での競争の熾烈(しれつ)化や長引く景気停滞のなかで、法人税負担の大小は企業の競争条件に影響を与える。そのため各国とも法人税率が大幅に引き下げられてきており、日本でも経済界の実質減税の要求もあり、1998年度税制改正では、内国法人である普通法人または人格のない社団等に課する各事業年度の所得に対する基本税率が34.5%に、普通法人のうち資本額もしくは出資金が1億円以下であるいわゆる中小法人にする軽減税率が25%に、さらに1999年4月1日からはそれぞれ30%と22%にまで引き下げられた。

 法人税率の引下げは世界的傾向であり、OECD26か国の法人税最高税率の平均値は1986年の41%から、1991年35%、1995年33%、2000年32%と低下した。1986年から2000年までの期間中に最高税率をもっとも大幅に引下げたのはアイルランドであり51%から24%へ27ポイント、次いでスウェーデンが52%から28%へ24ポイントも引下げている。法人所得を課税標準とする税という広義の法人税には、地方住民税の法人税割も含まれる。標準税率は道府県民税が法人税額の5.0%、市町村民税が12.3%であるから、1999年以降の30%と22%に対応する法人所得に対する税率に換算すると基本税率の場合にはそれぞれ道府県民税は1.5%に、市町村民税は3.69%に、中小企業に対する軽減税率の場合にはそれぞれ1.1%と2.706%に対応する。地方税には地方自治を推進するために税率選択の裁量が与えられているが、法人所得税である法人住民税法人税割には制限税率として道府県民税に6%、市町村民税に14.7%が定められている。

 法人税は原則として黒字法人のみが支払い、赤字法人には課税されないから、景気後退においては赤字法人が増加し、法人税収は大幅に低下する。また、赤字法人にまで転落しなくても、黒字法人の所得は激しく変動し、法人所得税は高い変動性にさらされる税収の不安定な税としての特徴を有する。法人税課税根拠と密接に関係するが、赤字法人も税収を財源として提供される各種インフラストラクチャーの便益を享受しているのは事実である。そのため赤字法人に対する一定額の租税支払いを求める圧力も強くあり、この傾向は、基本的には4業界(電気、ガス、生保、損保)を除いて、所得を課税標準として課税されていた道府県税である従来の事業税を一部外形課税化した制度変更にもみられる。なお、2003年度税制改正において資本金が1億円を超える法人を対象に、法人事業税への外形標準課税の導入が決定した(実施は2004年度から)。2008年度から適用する税率は、所得割は800万円超には2.9%、400万円超800万円以下には2.2%、400万円以下には1.5%である。外形課税標準の付加価値割には0.48%、資本割には0.2%の税率が適用され、外形課税される。

[林 正寿]

[参照項目] | 外形標準課税 | 事業税 | 所得税 | 租税

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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