Agricultural tools are simple tools used in farming. They are used for a wide range of purposes, including growing crops, processing agricultural products, raising livestock, and raising silkworms. Agricultural tools are thought to have started to emerge spontaneously with the beginning of agriculture, when people started using a single stick to replace their hands, and then curved pieces of wood evolved into tools made of stone, and then from stone to iron. However, the way in which tools developed varies depending on the environment, natural conditions, form of agriculture, and ethnic customs of each region. Agricultural tools can also be broadly divided into those for human power and those for animal power. In the West, farming was centered on field crops and the country followed the path of large-scale livestock farming, so animal-powered tools developed early on, but in Japan, farming was centered on rice cultivation and progressed to small-scale intensive management, so agricultural tools developed mainly for human power. In European countries, the United States, Japan, and other areas, the development has progressed from farm tools to agricultural machinery, and agricultural machinery is now used as the main means of agricultural work. In emerging countries in Asia and Africa, the use of powered agricultural machinery has begun in some areas as economies develop, but many countries still rely on farm tools powered by human or animal power. [Kyojiro Inoue and Ken Taniwaki] kindsTypical agricultural tools for tilling and leveling the land include the hoe and the hand hoe, which are used by human power, and the plow, which is used by animal power. Tilling the soil is the most basic task in crop cultivation, and in European countries and Japan, plowing and leveling the land are done using tractors as power. In emerging Asian countries, economic development has progressed since the 21st century, and the use of powered agricultural tools such as four-wheeled tractors has progressed according to the degree of economic development. In the rice-growing centers of China, Thailand, Malaysia, and India, riding tractors have come to be used. In some of these countries, as well as Indonesia, the Philippines, Myanmar (Burma), and Bangladesh, walking tractors are used, and in peripheral areas where economic development has not yet reached, tilling with animal power still remains. Plows are classified into no-bed plows, long-bed plows, and short-bed plows according to the length of the plow bed (ground part). In Japan, no-bed plows and long-bed plows have been used since ancient times, but short-bed plows have come to be used since the Showa era. Currently, the ploughs used in China and Southeast Asia are long-bed ploughs, and the majority of ploughs in India are also of the long-bed type. In African countries such as Sudan and Tanzania, and in parts of Southeast Asia, animal-powered cultivation is not practiced, and manual cultivation using hoes is practiced. In these regions, only two types of tools are used for tilling the soil by hitting it, such as hoes, and tools such as spades and shovels for turning up the soil. These tools are simple in shape and are used to perform all tasks related to soil processing, such as plowing, leveling, and creating furrows. In Japan, rice transplanters are used for rice planting, but outside of Japan, hand planting is the norm, and in most cases, planting is done randomly, with almost no agricultural tools for rice planting. Generally, in Southeast Asia, seedlings that are taller than in Japan are transplanted, but some regions use tools to plant seedlings deeper (such as the Kukukanbin in Malaysia). The basic harvesting tools are sickles for reaping and hoes for digging. In Japan, sickles for rice have a gently arcing saw blade attached to the handle at an angle of about 60 degrees, but in most countries other than Japan, a tool similar to a Western sickle with a strongly arcing saw blade attached to the handle is used. In parts of Africa and Indonesia, rice is harvested by picking the rice with a knife attached to the finger (such as the Indonesian aniani). In a very small proportion of cases, powered or foot-operated threshers are used for threshing, but in most cases, the rice is threshed by slamming the sheaves with ears on a threshing table or by having cows stomp on them with their hooves. Natural wind is used to separate the straw, stalks and grain from the kernels. After that, the rice is spread out on mats woven from bamboo or grass, or on the ground, and dried in the sun. Currently in Japan, binders, combines and dryers are used for harvesting, threshing and drying. In Europe, America, and Japan, the development of agricultural machinery has reduced the importance of agricultural tools, and many of these tools, such as the threshing tool senbakoki and the rice hulling tool karausu, are no longer seen today, but small tools such as hoes and sickles are still indispensable agricultural tools. In Southeast Asia, India, and African countries, agricultural tools are still important and indispensable for crop production. Although the types, shapes, and development of tools vary from country to country, tools have been developed to suit the conditions of each country, such as the rice sheaves sled pulled by buffalo in Thailand and the hand-powered water lift (dang) that uses a lever in Bangladesh, and have continued to evolve. [Kyojiro Inoue and Ken Taniwaki] History of Japanese Farm ToolsThe development stages of agricultural tools in Japan can be broadly divided into (1) the stage of stone and wooden tools, (2) the appearance and spread of iron tools during the Kofun period, (3) the improvement and invention of agricultural tools from the Edo period onwards, and (4) the appearance of powered tools from the early Showa period onwards, and the development and spread of agricultural tools after World War II. These development stages are based on tilling, harvesting, and threshing tools, but each stage unfolds in close relation to the production and lifestyle, and social and economic structure of the time. There are many debates about the beginning of agriculture in Japan, and there are problems in determining whether agriculture began in the Jomon period, but recently perilla, gourd, mung bean, buckwheat, rice, and other crops have been found at Jomon ruins in various places, and at the Itazuke ruins in Fukuoka Prefecture, rice paddy remains from the end of the Jomon period, as well as related facilities, agricultural tools, and unhulled rice, suggesting that, according to the conventional pottery chronology, wet rice cultivation in Japan began at the end of the Late Jomon period, and that even before this, slash-and-burn agriculture and cultivation of crops in garden fields (permanent fields around dwellings) were practiced. As for agricultural tools, many wooden and stone agricultural tools have been found after the end of the Jomon period, as wet rice cultivation became established and widespread in the Yayoi period, but before this, tools such as chipped stone axes can be identified as tilling tools. Agricultural tools used in wet rice cultivation during the Yayoi period included flat hoes, round hoes, forked hoes, and hoes (long-handled hoes, shovels, and scoops) made from oak trees as tilling tools, and stone knives and stone sickles used for harvesting the heads of rice ears. These harvesting tools were used not only for wet rice but also for harvesting field crops. In the middle Yayoi period, some types of hoes and hoes were fitted with iron blades at the tip, and iron sickles were excavated in Kitakyushu during the middle and late Yayoi period, and stone knives are rarely found from this period, with some exceptions. Furthermore, in the late Yayoi period, wooden eburi, rice clogs, large feet, and rice boats were used, as well as vertical mortars, vertical pestles, and horizontal pestles as threshing and adjustment tools. From these facts, we can see that in the Early Yayoi period, tillage tools had evolved, even though they were made of wood all the way down to the tips of the blades, and that in the Later Yayoi period, rice cultivation techniques and management had reached a certain degree of completion, with the use of eburi and large feet for plowing, the treading of green manure, irrigation and drainage from canals, and the storage of grains in raised storehouses. The use of iron farming tools can be seen from the middle of the Yayoi period onwards, but it was not until the Kofun period that this became of major importance. In the Kofun period, iron crocodiles (horse hoes) appeared, and then, in the mid-5th century, iron U-shaped hoe tips were attached to wooden hoes. This made dry-field cultivation and deep plowing possible for rice cultivation, increasing production. Furthermore, iron sickles with curved blades began to be used for harvesting, making it possible to reliably remove the roots of paddy rice. In addition to paddy rice, millet, barley, wheat, soybeans, adzuki beans, melons, eggplants, peaches and hemp have been found in ruins from this period, indicating the development of field farming. The development of iron tilling tools can be easily predicted from the domestic production of iron from the middle of the 5th century and the construction of ancient tombs, and irrigation facilities also improved with the development of civil engineering technology, but the ownership of iron farming tools was initially limited to local chieftains, and it was not until the 6th century that they became widespread. On the one hand, the improvement in productivity brought about by these iron farming tools became the basis for the establishment of the ancient nation. Following the development of hoes and spades and the establishment of sickles in the Kofun period, the next period saw the appearance of the karasuki. Traditionally, a plough excavated from Hikimi Town, Mino County, Shimane Prefecture (now Masuda City) was thought to date to the Kofun period, but recent research has shown that this dates to after the end of the Muromachi period, and the oldest known ancient ploughs are the "Nenohinotegarasuki" in Shosoin and those found in various documents from the Heian period. The "Kohito Karasuki" is a mushouri (plow without a bed), and the "Karasu-ki" in the "Shinsen Jikyo" and "Wamyo Ruijusho" from the Heian period, along with the plows in the "Engishiki", are of the long-bed plow type. From the reading of the word "plow" as "karasuki", we can see that this was introduced from the continent, and plows became widespread from the latter half of the 10th century to the beginning of the 12th century. In "Shin Sarugakuki" (mid-11th century) and "Konjaku Monogatari" (early 12th century), there are references to hoes, shovels, horse rakes, plows, and sickles, and it is believed that plows became widespread, especially in western Japan, during this period, and that iron farming tools such as hoes and sickles had also spread to ordinary farmers. During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, plows were the property of upper-class farmers, while lower-class farmers primarily used hoes as tilling tools, and after the Taiko Land Survey in the Edo period, the development of tilling tools progressed in the form of the differentiation of hoes. As social stratification progressed historically, hoes were regarded as basic agricultural tools that allowed lower-class farmers to become independent and maintain their status, and by the late Edo period, various types of hoes were established according to the natural and cultivated land conditions and purposes of use in each region. In Okura Nagatsune's "Convenient Agricultural Tools" (1822), in addition to 27 types of bath hoes from 24 regions, Chinese hoes, Bitchu hoes, tread hoes (cast hoes), hoes (Kyoto hoes, Goshu hoes, Kanto hoes), and horse hoes were also described, suggesting that the techniques of plowing fields with hoes and hoes, breaking soil, leveling, making ridges, cultivating, and weeding had already been perfected. In cotton-growing regions, row-making tools such as the sinew cutter and double-hook hoe were also described, and tools for cultivating and weeding such as the ganzume, small rake, and grass scraper were also in use. Along with these, threshing and preparation tools also developed significantly during the Edo period. Sickles, a harvesting tool, were common agricultural tools, as famous whetstone production areas emerged in the early Edo period. For threshing tools, bamboo winnowing fans were made in the Genroku period (1688-1704), which were later replaced by iron ones and quickly became more widespread. Furthermore, for sorting tools, a "tomi" (winnowing fan) can be seen in the Aizu Nosho (Aizu Agriculture Book) from 1684 (Jokyo 1), and by the Kansei period (1789-1801) it had become widely used. In the Edo period, earthen mortars were used for hulling rice, and in the latter part of the Edo period, mortars that rotated the mortar using the reciprocating motion of a stick began to become popular. Before the Senba threshing machines, threshing chopsticks (thresher bamboo) and thresher pipes were used as threshing tools, but with the appearance of the Senba threshing machines with their bamboo and iron teeth, threshing efficiency increased dramatically. The nickname for the Senba threshing machines, "Widow-beating," reflects the increase in efficiency and the resulting change in family labor patterns. The winnowing basket is as described above in documents, but there is an actual one that bears an inscription from 1767 (Meiwa 4). In the Edo period, agricultural tools were improved, invented, or even adopted, and the labor-intensive nature of Japanese agriculture was established. However, it did not go beyond the scope of hand cultivation. In the Meiji period, the influence of Western agricultural science increased interest in plows, and plowing with oxen and horses became widespread. In the mid-Meiji period, short-bed plows were developed that combined the advantages of the existing long-bed and bedless plows, and came into use all over the country. Then, in the early Taisho period, the foot-operated thresher was invented to replace the 1,000-tooth thresher, and in the early Showa period, powered threshers appeared, and threshing and adjustment tools were mechanized, and after World War II, the cultivation process was also mechanized with the spread of powered tillers. [Naoyuki Ogawa] History of European Farm ToolsNorthwestern Europe has a cold, humid climate, and many areas have clay soil, making the environment completely different from the Mediterranean region, where dry land farming had developed since ancient times. For this reason, even when it comes to tilling techniques, dry land farming, which breaks up and mixes the light soil surface to effectively retain moisture, cannot be applied to farming methods that aim to improve drainage by creating ridges in moist clay soil, plowing deeply, and turning over, and the farming tools used were also incompatible. In Europe, farming methods and tools developed in unique forms. [Tasashi Kobayashi] PlowIn the Neolithic period, wooden digging sticks and hoes were used, and it is believed that the plow used in the Mediterranean region later spread throughout Europe. However, as this plow was not suitable for clay soil, its use appears to have been limited to a small number of areas with light soil. After the Roman era, cultivation of productive clay soil became widespread, and from the 10th to 13th centuries, when arable land became vast, agricultural tools saw remarkable development. In the 1st century BC, iron blades and iron poultry knives were widely used. These blades and poultry knives were different from those in the Mediterranean region in that they were sturdy and heavy. In the 7th century, the technology of adjusting the tilling depth and making it easier to use was developed by attaching wheels to the plough, and in the 11th century, the mouldboard was invented, which directly turns over the scooped up soil. It is thought that the prototype of the modern plow was created during this period. Mouldboards had complex curved surfaces and were difficult to manufacture with the technology of the time, but it was not until the 19th century that various types of mouldboards were completed. [Tasashi Kobayashi] Earthenware crusherIn the 11th century, seeds were sown on land that had been tilled with a plow, and the soil was broken and covered with a harrow. Harrows were made with iron rods attached to a wooden frame, as well as rotating rods attached to an oak cylinder, and these became the basis for the current fixed-rod and rotating harrows. [Tasashi Kobayashi] Seeding equipmentIt seems that ancient tilling also covered the seeds with soil, and it is said that a sowing machine consisting of a plow with a wooden tube attached has existed since ancient times, but there is little evidence of its use. In the Middle Ages, seeds were placed in a wicker box called a seedlip, which was hung from the shoulder and sowed by hand. Another simple method was to place the seeds in an apron folded upwards and sow them. [Tasashi Kobayashi] SickleIn the Neolithic period, wooden sickles with serrated blades made from flint were used to harvest grain. The curve of the blade was concave like a modern sickle. In Europe, the weather was changeable, so harvesting work required high efficiency, and the sickle handle was designed to prevent fatigue. From around the 4th century BC, sickles used with one hand had a blade bent backwards at the end of the handle, reducing strain on the wrist. In the Middle Ages, in order to make harvesting grass and other crops more efficient, short-handled scythes that could be used with both hands were created, and around the 11th century, a short handle was attached to a long handle on these scythes. Towards the end of the 14th century, the hand-held scythe, which had a semicircular twig attached to a handle to gather the culms (stalks) to make it easier to bundle the grain after harvesting, became widespread, and from the 16th century onwards, this scythe replaced the sickle for harvesting grain. Today's sickles, scythes and cradles all developed from the hand-held scythe. On the other hand, it is said that in ancient Rome there was a harvesting comb that cut the stalks near the tips, but it has not been used since then. Animal-powered mowers, reapers, binders and combines were invented in the 19th century. [Tasashi Kobayashi] Threshing equipmentUntil the mid-19th century, threshing was done by hand using a shackle, or by laying the grain on the ground and having animals tread it or pull a stone roller. The thresher was invented in the early 19th century. [Tasashi Kobayashi] Chinese Farm ToolshoeThe ridged hoe is similar to the Japanese Kara hoe or Bachi hoe, the toothed hoe is similar to the Bitchu hoe, and the number of teeth is 2 to 4. The flat hoe is very similar to the Japanese Kin hoe. It is the original that was introduced to Japan, but there are few varieties. [Tasashi Kobayashi] PlowIt is believed that the Chinese plow was introduced from the Mediterranean region around the 4th century B.C. The shape of the current plow is thought to be based on one from around the 11th century, and is similar to the Japanese long-bed plow. [Tasashi Kobayashi] SickleChinese sickle knives have a different shape from European sickles. Old sickle knives were either ones with an iron blade and a wooden handle, or ones with both the blade and handle made entirely of iron. Their shape is not very different from modern ones, but the way the handle is attached is different. Grain-slicing knives were mainly used to cut foxtail millet, while claw sickles were used to harvest only the heads of sorghum, foxtail millet, etc. [Tasashi Kobayashi] Threshing equipmentThe main tools are stone rollers pulled by animal power, shackles, and rice beds. A fan wheel (winnowing basket) is used for sorting. The stone roller and fan wheel are agricultural tools invented in China. [Tasashi Kobayashi] "Systematic Agricultural Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (1966), edited and published by the Agricultural Policy Research Committee" ▽ "Agricultural Tools, by Iinuma Jiro and Horio Hisashi (1976, Hosei University Press)" ▽ "Japanese Sickles, Hoes, and Plows, edited by the Greater Japan Agricultural Association (1979, Agricultural Policy Research Committee)" ▽ "Learning Japanese Archaeology 2, edited by Otsuka Hatsushige, Tozawa Mitsunori, and Sahara Makoto (1979, Yuhikaku)" ▽ "Survey of Folk and Agricultural Tools with Dates (Eastern Japan)" (1980), edited and published by the Japanese Folk Culture Research Institute" ▽ "Survey of Folk and Agricultural Tools with Dates (Western Japan)" (1981), edited and published by the Japanese Folk Culture Research Institute" ▽ "Japanese Folk Culture Series 3: Rice and Iron," edited by Mori Koichi et al. (1983, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Biological Production Machinery Handbook" edited by the Japanese Society of Agricultural Machinery (1996, Corona Publishing) [References] | | | | | | | | | | | preparation|Senba | |Rice | | | |Rice field | | | | | | | |The book explains hoes from around Tsushima, Aichi Prefecture (top right of the left page) and Kyoto hoes (bottom right of the right page). Hoes from around the country described in "Nogu Benri-ron" The three-pronged and four-pronged Bitchu hoes are depicted. The one with a wide blade tip is called a Bitchu hoe with a bachi. "Nougu Benri-ron" (Convenient Agricultural Tools), Volume 1, by Okura Nagatsune, National Diet Library A Bitchu hoe mentioned in "Nogu Benri-ron" In the center is a Kyoto hoe for use on fields with coarse sand. "Nogu Benri-ron" (Convenient Agricultural Tools), Volume 1, by Okura Nagatsune, National Diet Library The Kyoto hoe described in "Nogu Benri-ron" The shape, dimensions, etc. are detailed. "Agricultural Tools Convenience Theory" (Part) Volume 1 by Nagatsune Okura, National Diet Library The Kanto hoe described in "Nogu Benri-ron" A scythe for cutting grass (top right) used in the Edo area and its usage (bottom). From "Nogu Benri-ron" (Convenient Agricultural Tools), Volume 2, by Okura Nagatsune, held at the National Diet Library . A scythe for cutting grass, as described in "Nogu Benri-ron" Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
農作業に用いる構造の簡単な道具のことをいう。作物の栽培や農産物の加工、養畜、養蚕など広範に使われる。農具は、農業の始まりとともに手先にかわるものとして、1本の棒の使用から、やがて曲がり木を利用するようになるなど自然発生的に始まったものと考えられており、鋤(すき)、鍬(くわ)、犂(すき)(プラウ)の刃先は木製から石製へ、石製から鉄製へと進化したとされている。しかし、その発達の仕方は、それぞれの農業の置かれた環境、自然条件や、農業の形態、民族の風習などによって異なる。農具はまた人力用と畜力用とに大別でき、西洋では畑作中心の農業で、しかも有畜大規模経営の道を歩んだため、早くから畜力用具が発達したが、日本では水稲作中心で零細集約経営に進んだため、農具は人力用を中心に発達した。ヨーロッパ諸国やアメリカ、日本などにおいては、農具から農業機械への発展の道をたどり、農業の主要な作業の手段としては農業機械が使われており、アジアやアフリカの新興国においても、経済発展に伴って動力を用いた農業機械の普及が一部で始まっているが、まだ多くの国々では人力用、畜力用の農具に依存している。 [井上喬二郎・谷脇 憲] 種類耕うん、整地のための代表的な農具として、人力用では鋤、鍬があり、畜力用として犂がある。土を耕すことは作物栽培のもっとも基本的な作業であり、ヨーロッパ諸国や日本では、トラクターを動力として耕うん、整地が行われている。アジアの新興国では、21世紀になって経済発展が進み、その度合いに応じて、四輪トラクターをはじめとする動力を利用した農具の利用が進んでいる。中国やタイ、マレーシア、インドの稲作の中心地では、乗用トラクターが使われるようになってきている。これらの国々の一部やインドネシア、フィリピン、ミャンマー(ビルマ)、バングラデシュなどでは歩行用トラクターが使われ、経済発展の及んでいない周辺部では、まだ畜力犂による耕うんが残っている。犂は犂床(接地部)の長さにより無床犂(むしょうり)、長床犂、短床犂に分類される。日本では古来、無床犂、長床犂が使われていたが、昭和に入って短床犂が使われるようになった。現在、中国や東南アジアで使われている犂は長床犂であり、インドでも大部分が長床犂の系統である。スーダン、タンザニアなどアフリカの諸国や東南アジアの一部では畜力耕も行われておらず、鍬を使っての人力耕うんが行われている。これらの地方では、鍬のように土を打って耕す道具と、鋤やシャベルのように土をおこす道具との2種類のみで、耕うん、整地、作溝など土を処理するすべての作業を行っており、形状も単純である。 田植は、日本では田植機が用いられているが、日本以外は手植えが主流であり、しかも大部分が乱雑植えであって、田植用の農具はほとんどない。一般に東南アジアでは、日本に比べ草丈の長い苗を移植するが、苗を深く植えるための道具(マレーシアでのククカンビンなど)を使う地方もある。 収穫用農具としては、刈り取りのための鎌(かま)、掘り取りのための鍬が基本である。日本の稲用の鎌は、緩い円弧の鋸刃(のこば)が柄に約60度の角度でついているものが用いられているが、日本以外の大部分の国では、強い円弧の鋸刃が柄の延長上に取り付けられた西洋小鎌(シックル)に類似したものが用いられている。アフリカやインドネシアの一部では穂刈りが行われており、指につけた穂刈り用ナイフ(インドネシアのアニアニなど)で摘み取られる。 脱穀作業は、ごく一部で動力脱穀機や足踏み脱穀機が用いられているが、大部分は、穂のついた束を脱穀台にたたきつけたり、牛のひづめに踏ませたりして脱穀する。藁(わら)や穂くずと穀実の選別は自然の風を用いる。その後、竹や草で編んだ莚(むしろ)や地面に広げて天日で乾かす。現在、日本では、刈り取り、脱穀、乾燥の作業は、バインダー、コンバインや乾燥機を用いている。 欧米や日本では農業機械が発達して、農具は重要性を減じ、脱穀用具としての千歯扱(せんばこき)や籾摺(もみす)り用具としての唐臼(からうす)などのように、現在みることのできなくなった農具も少なくないが、鍬や鎌などの小道具は今日でもなお欠くことのできない農具として使われている。東南アジアやインド、アフリカの諸国では、現在でも農具類は作物生産に欠くことのできない重要な道具である。それぞれの国によって種類や形状、発達の違いはあっても、たとえばタイの水牛に引かせる稲束運搬そりや、バングラデシュのてこを利用した人力揚水機(ダン)などのように、それぞれの置かれた条件に対応したくふうがみられ、変化を重ねながら発達の道をたどっている。 [井上喬二郎・谷脇 憲] 日本の農具の歴史日本の農具の発達段階を概観すると、(1)石製農具と木製農具の段階、(2)古墳時代の鉄製農具の出現と普及、(3)江戸時代以降の農具改良と発明、(4)昭和初期からの動力機具の出現と第二次世界大戦後の農機具の発展・普及に大別できる。これは耕うん、収穫、脱穀調整用具を基準とした発達段階であるが、いずれも各段階は当時の生産・生活様式、社会・経済構造と密接な関連をもって展開している。 日本における農耕の開始についてはさまざまな議論があり、縄文時代の農耕の確定には問題もあるが、最近は各地の縄文遺跡からエゴマ、ヒョウタン、リョクトウ、ソバ、イネなどが検出され、また福岡県板付(いたづけ)遺跡からは縄文時代終末期の水田遺構と関連施設、農具、籾(もみ)が出土し、日本の水稲作の開始は従来の土器編年に従えば縄文時代晩期の終末期で、さらにこれ以前には焼畑農耕や庭畑(住居周辺の常畑(じょうばた))での作物栽培が行われていたと考えられる。農具についていえば縄文時代終末期以降、弥生(やよい)時代には水稲作が定着・普及するなかで多くの木製・石製農具が検出されているが、これ以前は打製石斧(せきふ)などが耕うん用具として比定できるのである。弥生時代の水稲作に伴う農具では、耕うん用具としてカシ類の木を材料にした平鍬(ひらぐわ)、丸鍬、股鍬(またぐわ)、鋤(すき)(長柄鋤、着柄鋤、スコップ)、収穫用具として穂首刈りを行った石包丁(いしぼうちょう)・石鎌(いしがま)があり、この収穫具は水稲だけでなく、畑作穀類の収穫にも使われたようである。弥生時代の中期には鍬・鋤の一部の型のものは、その先端に鉄刃がはめられるようになり、北九州では弥生中・後期には鉄鎌が出土し、一部を除いてはこの時期から石包丁がほとんどみられなくなる。さらに弥生後期には木製のエブリ、田下駄、大足(おおあし)、田舟が使われ、脱穀調整具としての竪臼(たてうす)、竪杵(たてきね)、横杵もみられる。これらのことから、弥生前期には刃先まで木製であっても耕うん用具には分化がみられ、後期にはエブリ、大足による代掻(しろか)きや緑肥の踏み込み、さらに水路からの灌漑(かんがい)と排水、高倉による穀物の保存など、水稲作技術やその経営にある程度の完成をうかがうことができる。 鉄製農具の使用は一部弥生時代中期からみられるが、これが大きな意味をもってくるのは古墳時代になってからである。古墳時代に入ると鉄製の股鍬(馬鍬)が現れ、ついで5世紀中ごろには鉄製のU字形の鋤先・鍬先が木製の鋤・鍬に着装されるようになる。これによって稲作は乾田耕作、深耕が可能となり、生産量が増大し、さらに収穫には刃先が湾曲した曲刃(きょくば)の鉄鎌が使われ出し、水稲の根刈りが確実となってくる。この時代には水稲のほかにアワ、ヒエ、オオムギ、コムギ、ダイズ、アズキ、ウリ、ナス、モモ、アサなどが遺跡から検出され、畑作の進展もうかがえる。鉄製の耕うん用具の発達は、5世紀中ごろからの鉄の国内生産、古墳の造築からも十分予想でき、土木技術の発達から灌漑施設も充実するのだが、鉄製農具の所有は、初めは在地の首長層に限られ、これが普及するのは6世紀になってからである。一方ではこうした鉄製農具による生産力の向上が古代国家成立の基礎となっていったのである。 古墳時代の鍬・鋤の発達と鎌の確立に続き、次の時代には犂(からすき)が出現する。犂は従来、島根県美濃(みの)郡匹見(ひきみ)町(現、益田市)出土の犂鑱(すきさき)が古墳時代のものとされていたが、これは最近の研究から室町時代末以後のものとわかり、古代犂は正倉院の「子日手辛鋤(ねのひのてがらすき)」と、平安時代の諸文献にみえるものがもっとも古い資料である。「子日手辛鋤」は無床犂(むしょうり)で、平安期の『新撰字鏡(しんせんじきょう)』『倭名類聚抄(わみょうるいじゅしょう)』の「加良須支(岐)(からすき)」は、『延喜式(えんぎしき)』の犂とともに長床犂系のものである。犂のカラスキという訓からは、これが大陸からの伝来であることがわかり、犂の普及は10世紀後半から12世紀初めにかけてである。『新猿楽記(さるがくき)』(11世紀中ごろ)や『今昔物語』(12世紀初)などには鋤、鍬、馬耙(まぐわ)(馬歯(まぐわ))、犂(辛鋤)、鎌などがみえ、この時代には西日本を中心に犂が普及し、さらに鍬、鎌などの鉄製農具が一般農民にまで広まったと考えられる。 鎌倉・室町時代には犂は上層農民のもので、下層農民は鍬を耕うん用具の主体とし、さらに太閤(たいこう)検地以後江戸時代は、耕うん用具の発達が鍬の分化という形で進んでいく。鍬は歴史的に身分階層化が進むなかで、下層の農民が自立、維持していく基礎的農具としての意味をもつわけで、江戸時代後期には各地の自然・耕地状況、使用目的に応じたさまざまな形態のものが確定するのである。大蔵永常(おおくらながつね)の『農具便利論』(1822)では24地方27種の風呂(ふろ)鍬のほか、唐鍬(とうぐわ)、備中(びっちゅう)鍬、踏鋤(ふみすき)(鋳鍬(いぐわ))、鋤(京鋤(きょうすき)、江州(ごうしゅう)鋤、関東鋤)、馬鍬なども記され、鍬や鋤による田畑の耕起、砕土、均平、畝立(うねた)て、中耕、除草などの技術は完成していたと考えられる。綿作地帯では筋切り、二挺掛(にちょうがけ)といった作条具も記され、中耕除草用具には雁爪(がんづめ)、小熊手(こぐまで)、草削りなどもできていた。 江戸時代はこれらとともに脱穀調整用具も著しく発達した。収穫用具の鎌は、江戸時代前期に砥石(といし)の名産地が生まれていることから日常的な農具となっていたことがうかがえ、脱穀用具では元禄(げんろく)期(1688~1704)に竹の千歯扱(せんばこき)がつくられ、その後鉄製に変わって急速に広まり、さらに選別用具では1684年(貞享1)の『会津農書』に「颺扇(とうみ)」(唐箕)がみられ、寛政(かんせい)年間(1789~1801)には各地で使われるようになった。脱稃(だっぷ)(籾摺(もみす)り)に用いる磨臼(すりうす)は江戸時代になると土の唐臼(からうす)が使われ、江戸時代後期には遣木(やりき)の往復運動によって臼を回転させる方式のものが普及し始めている。脱穀用具は千歯以前は、扱(こ)き箸(ばし)(扱き竹)、扱き管(くだ)を使ったが、竹歯・鉄歯の千歯が出現することによって脱穀能率は飛躍的にあがった。千歯の異名「後家倒し」は、まさに能率向上とこれによる家族労働形態の変化を示している。唐箕については文献上では前述のとおりだが、実物では明和(めいわ)4年(1767)の銘のものが残されている。 江戸時代にはこのように農具の改良・発明あるいは摂取が行われ、日本農業の労働集約的な性格ができあがった。しかしあくまで手耕の枠を超える農業ではなかった。これが明治に入ると西洋農学の影響を受け、犂への関心が高まり、牛馬による犂耕が普及され、明治中期には在来の長床犂・無床犂の利点をあわせた短床犂がつくられ、各地で使われるようになるのである。そして大正初期には千歯にかわって足踏み脱穀機が発明され、昭和初期には動力脱穀機が出現して脱穀調整用具が機械化され、第二次世界大戦後には動力耕うん機の普及によって耕うん過程も機械化された。 [小川直之] ヨーロッパの農具の歴史ヨーロッパの北西部は寒冷湿潤な気候で、土壌も粘土質の所が多いため、古代から乾地農法として農業が発達していた地中海域とは環境がまったく違っていた。そのため耕うん技術ひとつについてみても、軽い土壌の表層を砕いてかき混ぜ、水分を有効に保持させる乾地農法は、湿潤な粘土質土壌を畝(うね)立て、深耕、反転などにより排水の効果をあげようとくふうする農法には適用できず、使用される農具も適さなかった。ヨーロッパでは農法と農具が独自の形態をとって発達した。 [小林 正] 犂新石器時代には木製掘り棒、鍬(くわ)などが使用され、その後、地中海域で使用されている犂(すき)がヨーロッパ各地に広まったとされているが、この犂は粘土質土壌に適さないため、軽い土壌のほんの一部地域での使用に限られていたようである。 ローマ時代以降粘土質の生産性の高い土地の開墾が盛んとなり、耕地が広大となった10世紀から13世紀になって、農具は目だった発達をみるようになる。 紀元前1世紀には鉄製刃板がついたものが普及し、また鉄製犂刀(りとう)も取り付けられていた。この刃板と犂刀は地中海域のものとは異なった形で堅牢(けんろう)につくられ、重いものであった。 7世紀には車輪が取り付けられることによって耕深を調節したり、使いやすくする技術が開発され、11世紀には壢土(れきど)(すくい上げた土)を直接反転させる撥土板(はつどばん)がつくられた。近代のプラウの原型はこの時代にできたものと考えられる。撥土板は複雑な曲面のため当時の技術では製作が困難であったが、19世紀に入り初めて各種の撥土板が完成した。 [小林 正] 砕土器11世紀には犂で耕うんしたところに種が播(ま)かれ、馬鍬(まぐわ)により砕土、覆土が行われたようである。馬鍬は木枠に鉄製の歯杆(しかん)を取り付けたもの、オーク材の円柱に歯杆を取り付けた回転式のものなどがつくられ、現在の歯杆固定形、回転形ハローのもととなっている。 [小林 正] 播種器具古代の耕うんは種子の覆土作用も同時にさせていたようであり、犂に木製の管を取り付けた播種(はしゅ)機が古くからあったとされているが、使用された形跡は少ない。中世においてはシードリップとよばれる枝編み細工の箱形容器に種子を入れ肩から下げて手で播いていた。また簡単なものは前掛けを上方に折り曲げて、その中へ種子を入れて播いていた。 [小林 正] 鎌新石器時代には穀類の刈り取りには火打石でつくられた刃を鋸歯(きょし)状に取り付けた木製の鎌(かま)が使用された。刃部の曲線は現在の小鎌のような中凹状であった。ヨーロッパでは天候が変わりやすい気象条件であったため収穫作業は高能率が要求され、鎌の柄(え)についても手首が疲れないようくふうがなされた。前4世紀のころより片手で使用する小鎌は柄の端で刃が後方に曲がった形となり、手首の酷使を軽減させている。 中世に入り牧草などの刈り取り作業を能率化するために、両手で使用する柄の短い大鎌がつくられ、11世紀のころこの大鎌には長い柄に短い取っ手がつけられるようになった。 14世紀の終わりごろには穀類を刈り取ったあと束ねやすくするために、稈(かん)(茎)を集める働きをさせる半円形の細枝を柄に取り付けた把装大鎌が普及し、16世紀以降穀類の刈り取りは小鎌からこの大鎌にとってかわられた。今日のシックルsickleは当時の小鎌、サイスscytheは大鎌、クレードルcradleは、把装大鎌がそれぞれもととなって発達したものである。一方、畜力用収穫機は茎の先端近くから刈り取る収穫櫛(ぐし)なるものが古代ローマにあったとされているが、以後の利用はみられない。畜力用モーア、リーパーreaper(刈取機)、バインダー、コンバインは19世紀に入ってから考案された。 [小林 正] 脱穀器具19世紀中ごろまでは、連枷(れんか)を使用して人力で打ち落とすか、禾穀(かこく)を地面に敷き役畜に踏ませたり、石のローラーを引かせたりして脱穀した。スレッシャーthresher(脱穀機)は19世紀前半に考案されている。 [小林 正] 中国の農具鍬鎬(こう)は日本の唐鍬またはばち鍬に類似し、歯鎬(しこう)は備中鍬に類似していて、歯杆の数は2~4本である。板鍬は日本の金鍬によく似ている。日本に伝播した本家であるが、種類は少ない。 [小林 正] 犂中国の犂は前4世紀ごろ地中海域で使用されていたものが伝えられたとされている。現在の犂の形状は11世紀ごろのものが原型となっているようで、日本の長床犂(ちょうしょうり)と似た形をしている。 [小林 正] 鎌中国の鎌刀(れんとう)はヨーロッパの鎌と形状は異なる。昔の鎌刀は鉄製の刃に木の柄をつけたものと、刃も柄部もすべて鉄製のものとがあった。その形は現在のものと大差ないが、柄の取り付け方法が違っている。削穀刀(さっこくとう)は主としてアワ穂の刈り取り、爪鎌(つめがま)はコウリャン、アワなどの穂だけを収穫するときに使用されていた。 [小林 正] 脱穀器具畜力でけん引する石ローラー、連枷、稲床などがおもなものである。選別には扇車(せんしゃ)(唐箕(とうみ))が使用されている。石ローラー、扇車は中国で考えられた農具である。 [小林 正] 『農政調査委員会編・刊『体系農業百科事典 第1巻』(1966)』▽『飯沼二郎・堀尾尚志著『農具』(1976・法政大学出版局)』▽『大日本農会編『日本の鎌・鍬・犂』(1979・農政調査委員会)』▽『大塚初重・戸沢充則・佐原真編『日本考古学を学ぶ2』(1979・有斐閣)』▽『日本常民文化研究所編・刊『紀年銘(年号のある)民具・農具調査――東日本』(1980)』▽『日本常民文化研究所編・刊『紀年銘(年号のある)民具・農具調査――西日本』(1981)』▽『森浩一他編『日本民俗文化大系3 稲と鉄』(1983・小学館)』▽『農業機械学会編『生物生産機械ハンドブック』(1996・コロナ社)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |愛知県津島周辺(左頁右上)の鍬、京鍬(右頁右下)など、各地の鍬について解説されている。『農具便利論』 巻上 大蔵永常著国立国会図書館所蔵"> 『農具便利論』に記された各地の鍬 三本備中鍬、四本備中鍬などが描かれている。刃の先端部が広がったものは、ばち付き備中鍬という。『農具便利論』 巻上 大蔵永常著国立国会図書館所蔵"> 『農具便利論』に記された備中鍬 中央に描かれているのが、あら砂まじりの田畑用の京鋤。『農具便利論』 巻上 大蔵永常著国立国会図書館所蔵"> 『農具便利論』に記された京鋤 形状、寸法などが細かく記されている。『農具便利論』(部分) 巻上 大蔵永常著国立国会図書館所蔵"> 『農具便利論』に記された関東鋤 江戸近辺で用いられた刈草大鎌(右上)とその使用法(下)。『農具便利論』 巻中 大蔵永常著国立国会図書館所蔵"> 『農具便利論』に記された草刈大鎌 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
>>: Agricultural location - Nougyorich
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