Arid terrain

Japanese: 乾燥地形 - かんそうちけい
Arid terrain

A landform that develops in arid regions. In arid regions, where the annual precipitation is less than the annual potential evaporation, vegetation is sparse, and the occasional rainfall is often heavy. As a result, mechanical weathering is predominant, and although the total precipitation is low, running water is active. It is also the region where wind is most active. Landforms are formed by internal forces such as folding and faulting that act from within the Earth, the characteristics of the rocks that make up the landform, and external forces such as weathering and erosion. Therefore, even if the climatic conditions are the same, there are differences in landforms between orogenic belts and stable land masses. In orogenic belts, mountains are formed by rapid downward erosion by rivers and faulting. Up to this point, the landform formation process in arid regions is similar to that in humid regions, but it differs when the erosion base level of the mountain slope stabilizes. In humid regions, the slope of the mountain slope gradually becomes gentler, whereas in arid regions, the steep mountain slopes retreat without decreasing in slope. As a result, a gently sloping eroded surface called a pediment is formed in front of the mountain. As the pediment expands, the mountain becomes a small hill that protrudes above the pediment, and eventually disappears, revealing a vast eroded flat surface called a pediplain. In orogenic belts, gravel production is active in the early stages of erosion (topographical cycle), so alluvial fans of sedimentary topography are formed in front of the mountain. As erosion of the mountain progresses, the production of gravel decreases, and the eroded pediment is replaced by the alluvial fan. On the other hand, stable land masses located on plate surfaces are not subject to much internal forces, so erosion ends early, and in the Australian desert, eroded flat surfaces formed from the end of the Mesozoic era (about 70 million years ago) to the middle of the Tertiary era (about 30 million years ago) are widely distributed throughout the country. The Japanese Alps have risen by about 1,500 meters in about 2 million years, so this figure also allows us to estimate how old the stable landmass' topography is. The Australian Plains are home to steep, narrow mountain ranges such as the MacDonnell Ranges and the Flinders Ranges, but these mountains are formed because the bedrock is very hard. While mountain slopes in orogenic belts such as the North American desert continue to retreat while remaining steep, the steep slopes of the Australian desert mountains are the result of the rapid erosion of relatively soft rocks, and the formation of these mountain slopes took much longer than the formation of mountain slopes in orogenic belts. Wind erosion can be divided into wind abrasion, in which sand blown by the wind denudes the bedrock, and deflation, in which fine particles are carried away. Landforms formed by the former include yardangs and Pang Kiangs, while landforms formed by the latter include hamadas and wind-eroded depressions, but these are smaller in scale and scope than wind-induced depositional landforms. Wind-induced depositional landforms include microtopography, sand beds, and sand dunes. Microtopography includes wind ripples, while sand beds are flat sand plains. Sand dunes take on various forms depending on the amount of sand supplied, wind force, and wind direction, but are mainly classified as barchan dunes, transverse dunes, and linear dunes. When the amount of sand supplied increases, a sandy depositional landform with continuous sand beds and dunes - a sandy desert - is formed. Sandy deserts are divided into two types based on area: those with an area of ​​less than 30,000 square kilometers are called dune fields, and those with an area of ​​more than 30,000 square kilometers are called sand seas.

[Yoshihiko Akagi]

[Reference] | Arid areas | Sand dunes | Terrain cycle | Hamada | Pediment
Dry terrain in mountain belts
The mountain slopes are receding at a steep gradient. Southern Arizona, USA © Yoshihiko Akagi ">

Dry terrain in mountain belts

Arid landforms of stable land masses
The topography is strongly influenced by geological structures. Southern Northern Territory, Australia © Yoshihiko Akagi ">

Arid landforms of stable land masses

Pediment
A gentle slope of erosion seen in front of mountains in arid regions, cutting through hard rocks similar to those in the mountains. In the center right of the photo, an embankment has developed, with the pediment cutting a wedge-shaped edge into the mountain. Nevada, USA © Yoshihiko Akagi ">

Pediment


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

乾燥地帯に発達する地形。年降水量が年可能蒸発量より少ない乾燥地帯においては植生がまばらであり、たまに降る雨はしばしば豪雨となる。そのため機械的風化作用が卓越し、総降水量が少ないにもかかわらず流水の働きは盛んである。また、風の働きのもっとも盛んな地域でもある。地形は地球内部から働く褶曲(しゅうきょく)運動や断層運動などの内的営力、地形を構成している岩石の特性、風化作用や侵食作用など外的営力により形成される。そのため、造山帯と安定陸塊では気候条件は同じでも地形には違いがみられる。造山帯では河川の急速な下方侵食や断層運動により山地が形成される。ここまでは乾燥地帯の地形形成過程は湿潤地帯のそれと類似しているが、山地斜面の侵食基準面が安定すると相違してくる。湿潤地帯では山地斜面の勾配(こうばい)がしだいに緩やかになるのに対して、乾燥地帯では急勾配の山地斜面は勾配を減少させず後退する。その結果、山地前面にペディメントpedimentとよばれる緩傾斜の侵食面が形成される。ペディメントが拡大すると山地はペディメント上に突出する小山となり、やがて消滅してペディプレーンpediplainとよばれる広大な侵食平坦(へいたん)面が現れる。造山帯では侵食輪廻(りんね)(地形輪廻)の初期においては砂礫(されき)の生産が盛んなため、山地前面に堆積(たいせき)地形の扇状地が形成される。山地の侵食が進むとともに、砂礫の生産量は減少し、侵食地形のペディメントが扇状地にとってかわる。他方、プレート面上に位置する安定陸塊は内的営力をあまり受けないため、侵食作用は早い時期に終わり、オーストラリア砂漠では中生代末期(約7000万年前)から第三紀中期(約3000万年前)にかけて形成された侵食平坦面が各地に広く分布している。日本アルプスが約200万年間に1500メートル程度隆起しているので、安定陸塊の地形の形成時期の古さがこの数値からも推定される。オーストラリア平原にはマクドネル山脈やフリンダーズ山脈など、急勾配で細長い山脈がみられるが、これらの山脈は基盤岩が非常に硬いために形成された地形である。北アメリカ砂漠など、造山帯の山地斜面が急勾配のまま後退しているのに対し、オーストラリア砂漠の山地の急斜面は相対的に軟らかい岩石が速く侵食された結果であり、これらの山地斜面の形成には造山帯の山地斜面の形成よりはるかに長い時間がかかっている。風の侵食作用(風食)は、風により吹き付けられた砂が基盤を削剥(さくはく)するウィンド・アブレージョンwind abrasionと、細粒物が運び去られるデフレーションdeflationに分かれる。前者により形成される地形としてはヤルダンyardang、パン・キャンPang Kiang、後者による地形としてはハマダhamadaや風食凹地などがあるが、風による堆積地形と比較すると規模、範囲ともに小さい。風による堆積地形は微地形、砂床、砂丘がある。微地形は風紋などであり、砂床は起伏のない砂原である。砂丘は、供給される砂の量、風力、風向によりさまざまな形態を示すが、主としてバルハン砂丘、横列砂丘、線状砂丘に分類される。砂の供給量が多くなると砂床や砂丘が連続した砂の堆積地形――砂砂漠が形成されるが、砂砂漠は面積によって二つに区分されており、3万平方キロメートル未満のものは砂丘原dune field、3万平方キロメートル以上のものは砂海sand seaとよばれている。

[赤木祥彦]

[参照項目] | 乾燥地帯 | 砂丘 | 地形輪廻 | ハマダ | ペディメント
造山帯の乾燥地形
山地斜面が急勾配のまま後退している。アメリカ アリゾナ州南部©赤木祥彦">

造山帯の乾燥地形

安定陸塊の乾燥地形
地質構造に強く影響された地形となっている。オーストラリア ノーザン・テリトリー南部©赤木祥彦">

安定陸塊の乾燥地形

ペディメント
乾燥地域の山地の前面にみられる、山地と同様の硬い岩石を切って発達する侵食緩斜面。写真中央右に、ペディメントが山地に楔状に切り込んだエンベインメントが発達している。アメリカ ネバダ州©赤木祥彦">

ペディメント


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