Confectionery - Kashi

Japanese: 菓子 - かし
Confectionery - Kashi

A type of luxury item eaten with tea or as a snack in addition to meals. In the past, the fruit of a plant was used and it was also written as "kako". "Ka" is the original character of "ka", and both mean "nut". In Japan, "fruit" also means "something from a tree". The entry for November 736 in the Shoku Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan), states that "Tachibana is the highest fruit, and is loved by people", and the Nippon-Portuguese Dictionary (published in 1603) also states that "Quaxi" means "confectionery, fruit, especially fruit eaten after a meal". Meanwhile, a dumpling-like food made from rice or wheat flour with sweet arrowroot, candy, and honey, the recipe of which was introduced from China during the Nara period, was called togashi or "karakudamono". At first, many of the sweets were shaped like fruits. This type later came to be called simply "kashi" (confectionery), and the fruits were called "mizugashi" (water-based sweets) or "fruit." Today, they are broadly divided into Japanese sweets, which are made from grains such as rice and wheat, miscellaneous grains such as beans and buckwheat, and sugar, and Western sweets, which combine flour with dairy products such as butter and milk, sugar, eggs, and flavorings.

[Fumio Sawa]

The Tradition of Japanese Sweets

Regarding fruits, the Kojiki tells the tale that when Izanagi-no-Mikoto fled from the underworld, he threw cattails (wild grapes) and peaches (peach blossoms) and was able to escape the clutches of the ugly women of the underworld who were pursuing him. There is also a story that during the reign of Emperor Suinin, Tajimamori was ordered by the emperor to go to the land of eternity in search of the elixir of immortality, the tokijiku no kagunokonomi (tachibana). Tachibana is also said to be an abbreviation of Tajimaka flower, and a tachibana tree is planted at Kaso Shrine (Kyoto City), which enshrines Tajimamori. In the Nihon Shoki, there is a story about Emperor Jinmu, before his accession to the throne, who prayed to subjugate the world without the use of weapons, and made candy without water in a yasohiraka pot. "Tagane" is an archaic word for hard candy. It is known that rice was offered as a raw material for candy in the Nara period, and the Daizenshiki in the Engishiki (Completed in 927) specifies candy as a food for favorite foods, sea vegetables, and raw vegetables.

[Fumio Sawa]

Chinese sweets

There are few documents about sweets in ancient Japan, but manju and chimaki had already appeared in neighboring China.

Regarding the origin of manju, Sokuseki of the Jin Dynasty wrote in the 3rd century, "If it is the beginning of spring, when yin and yang are in harmony, the chill has disappeared, and it is no longer hot or cold, and a banquet is held, mantou (buns) should be prepared." Banquets are held around manmaku (curtains), and the food served at the beginning of the banquet is mantou (buns), which suggests that manju was an appetizer-like food at the time. Another legend states that during the Three Kingdoms period, when Zhuge Kongming (181-234), prime minister of Shu, was on a southern expedition, he had the local people (Nanban) offer human heads (bantou) as offerings to the gods, but instead turned them into steamed mutton or pork wrapped in noodle skin, which is how the buns came to be, or that he deceived the local people and so the buns became buns. The buns of that time are described as "Shu's food (something that can be eaten immediately)," and the Book of Jin also states that "a cross is made on top of the steamed cake." A cross-shaped cut was made on the surface of the bun to prevent it from popping, which shows that the buns of that time were quite large.

The origins of chimaki are said to come from the story of Qu Yuan, a poet from Chu during the Warring States period (403-221 BC) who was a patriot. Qu Yuan was rejected due to slander, and in his anger he wrote the "Huai Sha Fu" (The Huai Sha Fu) and committed suicide by jumping into the Miluo River. The Chu people felt sorry for Qu Yuan's aspirations, and on May 5th, the anniversary of his death, they would throw steamed chimaki stuffed into a bamboo tube into the water to console his spirit. However, during the Jianwu period of the Han dynasty (25-55), a man from Changsha met the spirit of Qu Yuan in broad daylight and pleaded, "My offerings have been stolen by the Water Dragon. I want the tube rice dumplings wrapped in sandalwood leaves, which the Water Dragon hates, and five-colored silk threads." From then on, this Miluo tradition was passed down, and five-colored threads were used to ward off evil spirits. Qu Yuan was also worshiped as a water god, and some of the legends of the Water Dragon do not match up, but this is likely due to later additions. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties period around the 5th and 6th centuries, the idea of ​​rice dumplings as offerings to the gods became common. According to the 6th century book of annual events from the Hubei and Hunan regions of China, the Jingchu Saijiki, chimaki was a food eaten on the Dragon Boat Festival (May 5th) and the Summer Solstice Festival. At that time, chimaki were made by wrapping glutinous rice mixed with millet in triangular shapes with reed or horse-rice leaves and boiling them in strong lye. This recipe is also included in the Wamyōshō, but the old recipe remains for the local Kagoshima sweet "akumaki," and it is interesting to note that there is a connection between the two, as the prefecture is home to Bounotsu, a town that sent envoys to the Tang Dynasty. These Chinese-originated sweets were brought to Japan along with the development of culture, and would eventually form the uniquely Japanese sweets. The "eight kinds of Chinese sweets" such as baishi (plum branch), keishin (princess laurel), and danki (sweet rice cakes) that were introduced during the Nara period are particularly famous. For information on modern Chinese sweets, please refer to the "Chinese sweets" section.

[Fumio Sawa]

The transition from everyday food to Japanese sweets

Before the Jomon period, there was no farming, and it was an era of hunting and fishing. The beginnings of farming can already be seen at the end of the Jomon period, but it was not until the Yayoi period that rice cultivation began in earnest. Since then, rice production gradually increased and, as rice became the staple food, so-called sweet fruits (peaches, pears, apricots, walnuts, horse chestnuts, pine trees, mulberries, melons, etc.) gradually took on the character of a secondary food, although they were not yet fully luxury items.

It is believed that it was around the beginning of the Nara period that confectionery made from grains was made. Ingredients included rice, barley, wheat, millet, sorghum, soybeans, red beans, black peas, barnyard millet, and buckwheat, and seasonings included salt, vinegar, soy sauce, and sesame (oil), as well as sweeteners such as roasted kudzu, sugared persimmons, honey, and candy. However, edible oils, honey, and candy were all valuable goods beyond the reach of ordinary people. There is a record of an envoy from Bohai bringing honey in 739 (Tenpyo 11), and in 754 (Tenpyo Shoho 6), the Tang monk Ganjin presented brown sugar to the imperial court. This was the first time brown sugar was imported, and along with honey, it was treated as a medicine and was only enjoyed by a very small number of aristocrats.

Most of the sweets made using these ingredients and seasonings were either baked or fried from ground flour. In addition to eight types of Chinese sweets such as "danki," the Engishiki lists 14 types of fruit cakes, including "konton" (a type of later udon and suiton, but apparently also a type like sweet red bean soup), "kome" (okoshi), and "hakutaku" (hoto, whose name can be found in hoto in Yamanashi Prefecture and hatto soba in Iwate and Aomori Prefectures). Sweets such as Chinese sweets and fruit cakes were brought to Japan by Japanese envoys to the Tang Dynasty, monks studying abroad, and immigrants as part of Buddhist culture, and have since slowly developed into a unique field of Japanese sweets. Unfortunately, however, in Japan, the opportunity for exchange between dairy products and sweets was cut off before they could be combined.

In 676 (Tenmu Emperor 5), Emperor Tenmu banned the consumption of cows, horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens due to Buddhist precepts. However, milking continued. In the Taiho Code (701), "nyuko" (houses of milking) were designated, and in 713 (Wado 6), 50 milking households in Yamashiro Province (Kyoto) were ordered to present 3 sho 1 go 5 shaku of milk as royal tribute per day. The Engishiki also stipulated a system of tribute from various provinces, requiring milking households to present 8 go of milk per day (half that amount for lean cows). Nyu was condensed milk made by boiling milk down to one-tenth of its original volume, and daigo (today's cheese) was made from nyu. At that time, daigomi was ranked the highest of the five tastes (milk taste, dairy taste, raw butter taste, ripe butter taste, and daigomi). Since butter was also made in the process from butter to daigomi, if these dairy products had been used in Japanese sweets, they might have progressed and changed to the point that there would be no need to distinguish between Japanese and Western sweets today. However, the dairy products that were offered as tribute ultimately only went to the mouths of aristocrats and high priests.

[Fumio Sawa]

The formation of Japanese sweets

Buddhist culture certainly brought about the first flowering of the origins of Japanese sweets, such as Togashi and Kamochi. Throughout the Nara, Heian and Kamakura periods, Japanese sweets were limited to being a staple food or a complementary food, but from the end of the Northern and Southern Courts period into the Muromachi period, they underwent a remarkable development when combined with tea drinking.

In the Kamakura period, the custom of dim sum (eating light snacks before and after regular meals) had already spread with the spread of Zen Buddhism, and Zen monks would eat udon noodles or somen noodles in the early morning or at lunchtime, then drink tea with chanoko (tea snacks). However, when the custom of having three meals a day began, the distinction between dim sum and chanoko disappeared, and they came to be used synonymously. In the contemporary "Sekiso Orai" and "Teikin Orai," longan, walnuts, chestnuts, skewers of persimmons, and rice snacks were given as chanoko, and generally, tea and sweets were still very simple.

[Fumio Sawa]

Manju

In 1350 (Shohei 5, Kan'o 1), Zen Master Ryuzan Tokukumi returned to Japan after completing 45 years of training in the Yuan Dynasty. Among the Song people who accompanied him were Rinjoin, originally from Zhejiang Province, and his three sons. Tokukumi accepted the request of Ashikaga Tadayoshi and became the 35th abbot of Kennin-ji Temple in Kyoto, but the father and son did not go to Kyoto. Instead, they met with Emperor Go-Murakami at Ano-anzaisho in the Southern Court (Yoshino, Nara Prefecture) and presented him with manju. According to family legend, this manju presented to the deceased was a Joyo manju (also called Sanyaku manju), made by mixing grated yam (Chinese yam) with wheat flour and utilizing its leavening effect. The bean paste used was strained red bean paste made with sugar, which was imported in small quantities at the time. Hayashi Join is enshrined as the ancestor of Japanese confectionery along with Tamayori no Kami, but he is also enshrined separately as Hayashi Shrine in the grounds of Kankoku Shrine in Nara City, where he has been revered by those involved. The Hayashi clan was given the surname Shiose by the emperor, and took the name Hayashi Shiose. One of his three sons became a manju seller in Nara, and became the founder of Nara manju, which has the character "Hayashi" stamped on the surface in red ink. This Nara manju shop Hayashi Shiose family was further divided into Nara (Southern branch) and Kyoto (Northern branch), and produced many talented people during the Muromachi period, including Souji, author of "The Tale of Genji Hayashi Itsusho" and publisher of "Setsuyoshu" (a manju shop book), and Soumi, creator of the Shiose fukusa, as well as the head priests of famous temples in Kyoto and calligraphers. The Hayashi Shiose family was a clan of immigrants with advanced knowledge of academics, martial arts, and weaving, and as part of that knowledge they demonstrated their manju techniques.

In addition to the above, inexpensive na/sai manju (filled with vegetables) was also popular among the common people during the Muromachi period. A vestige of this can be seen in the "oyaki" of Shinshu (Nagano Prefecture) to this day. "Na" can also mean "appetizer" or "fish" and is not limited to vegetables. If the manju had been filled with vegetables or meat, it would be a Chinese nikuman (meat bun), but since this was a time when eating meat was taboo, manju made with meat were not sold.

Nikuman has a similar method of making konton (fried dumplings) from the Nara period. There was a method of wrapping chopped vegetables or meat in a thin dough made from kneaded wheat flour and eating it in soup, and another method of wrapping red bean paste in it to make it like sweet red bean soup. It can be said that the foundation for the development of nikuman and ankoman was already there. Also, in the entry for May 16, 1193 (4th year of Kenkyu) in the Azuma Kagami, it is written that Minamoto no Yoritomo, who held a hunting party at the foot of Mount Fuji, gave a "cross" to the seko (traditional Japanese hunters). The manju was quite large, and the cross-shaped cuts were probably made because it had a swelling effect. Although there were several examples that preceded Shiose manju, the elegant appearance of the completed manju and the elegant bean paste made this confectionery famous overnight, riding the wave of the rise of the tea ceremony at that time.

In contrast to the Shiose manju style, which utilizes the swelling action of yam, is the sake manju, which utilizes the fermentation principle of amazake. It is said that the method of making sake manju was brought to Japan in 1242 (Ninji 3) by Enni Ben'en (Shoichi Kokushi), who returned from a seven-year study abroad in Song China. Toraya Kurokawa in Kyoto and Tsuruya in Fushimi (the predecessor of Suruga-ya) were the pioneers in commercializing it. Toraya's sake manju are plump and large, while Suruga-ya's are flat and have the character "hon" branded on the surface, so they were called "hon-ji manju". However, amazake has a long history, so it is thought that the principle of sake manju making was known before Ben'en created it. Today's manju can be classified into two categories, sweet potato manju or sake manju, depending on how they are made.

[Fumio Sawa]

Rakugan

Rakugan, with its neat appearance and light flavor, is a type of dried confectionery called uchigashi (dried sweets), and was the confection that developed most rapidly with the rise of the tea ceremony. According to the Edo period dictionary "Wakun no Shiori," there was a confectionery called soft rakugan in the Ming Dynasty of China, which was shortened to rakugan. There is also the following theory about the origin of rakugan: During the Bunmei era (1469-1487), when Kyoto was exhausted from the Onin War, a samurai named Itakura Jibu Hirosada of Mibu, Yamashiro Province, lamented the ruins of the Imperial Palace and presented Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado with some handmade rakugan. It is made by steaming glutinous rice that has been dried in the cold, exposing it to sunlight, pounding it in a mortar, roasting it, adding sweeteners, sprinkling black sesame seeds on it, and pressing it into a wooden mold one inch square. The emperor likened the white background of the rakugan to snow and the black sesame seeds to wild geese, likening it to the "hard rice field rakugan" from the Eight Views of Omi. This led to the general term rakugan for all types of made confectionery, and the Itakura clan called their own products Gosho rakugan. Later, he followed Renyo of Hongan-ji Temple to the Yoshizaki Dojo, and when Renyo's second son Renjo went to Zuisen-ji Temple in Inami, Ecchu (Toyama Prefecture), he accompanied him and the tradition became established. In 1581 (Tensho 9), when Zuisenji Kenshu was defeated by Sassa Narimasa, Itakura Gorobei Hiromasa gave up his samurai status and took up the family business of making sweets, a tradition passed down through the generations. Currently, in addition to Gosho Rakugan, there is also the red and white spool-shaped itomaki rakugan. In 1625 (Kan'ei 2), Morishita Yazaemon of Kanazawa created a more elegant version of Gosho Rakugan. He used red red instead of black sesame seeds and finished the sweet in a red and white karasumi shape, adding a touch of elegance to the sweet. The idea for the karasumi shape came from Maeda Toshitsune, the third lord of the Kaga domain, and the name of the sweet, "Choseiden," was personally named by Kobori Enshu. This gorgeous feudal lord's confectionery still holds an unshakable position as the finest rakugan today. The fact that imported sugar was easily available during this time also helped to create this high-quality confectionery.

[Fumio Sawa]

Yokan and Gyuhi

Yokan, one of the top-grade confections along with manju and rakugan, is originally a type of cuisine brought to Japan by Buddhist culture. Originally it was a soup made with lamb called "atsumono" (a confection made with sweet bean paste), and was introduced to Japan by Zen monks, but in Japan, where eating meat is taboo, a steamed dish made primarily with red beans was already created during the Kamakura period and used as the filling for soup. With the development of the tea ceremony, this steamed dish was used for cha-no-ko (tea pods), creating the prototype for today's steamed yokan. It was Okamoto Zenemon, the fifth generation owner of Tsuruya in Fushimi, who previously introduced the "Hon no Ji Manju," who changed the method of steaming and hardening steamed yokan to a method of hardening it by adding tokoroten (jelly paste). Tsuruya's Neri Yokan was presented to feudal lords by Toyotomi Hideyoshi at Jurakudai in Kyoto in 1589 (Tensho 17). It was a rod-shaped sweet made of red azuki beans, and its deep crimson color exuded the splendor that symbolized the Momoyama period. Today, any color can be called Neri Yokan, but at Surugaya, only the red color is called Neri Yokan, preserving the glory of the past with the traditional color. In 1626 (Kan'ei 3), the year after the famous confectionery "Choseiden" was born, Asaka Chuzaemon in Kanazawa perfected Neri Yokan made with red azuki beans. This is the color of yokan that is common today. Maeda Toshitsune, the feudal lord, gave Chuzaemon a curtain with the name "Fujimura" dyed with wisteria and praised him highly. The color of the yokan was likened to the deep purple of wisteria. During the Horeki era (1751-1764), Fujimura moved to Edo and set up a store in a corner of the Kaga residence in Hongo. Since then, it has become one of Edo's most famous stores.

From the Muromachi period to the beginning of the Edo period, manju, rakugan, and yokan were released as finished products, establishing a firm foothold in confectionery. Inspired by the rise of the tea ceremony, Japanese confectionery was created like the two wheels of the tea ceremony, beautiful to look at, delicious to eat, and did not interfere with the taste of the tea. Sometimes extravagant, sometimes modest, and interesting combinations of ingredients were also considered, and by the end of the Edo period, a wide variety of Japanese confectionery was available. Uiro (Uiro), used as a palate cleanser for medicine during the Muromachi period, was made in a similar way to steamed yokan, but it has been passed down to the present day as a stick-shaped product that retains the characteristics of mochi (rice cake), and is completely different from kneaded yokan.

Also, the method of making gyuhi candy seen in Chosename (Kumamoto-made) became independent as gyuhi confectionery in the early Edo period, and this was combined with nerikiri and kinton to create a high-class confectionery. At that time, gyuhi was a high-class confectionery that could stand shoulder to shoulder with manju, rakugan, and yokan. Each of these confectioneries had a kind of "status," and they were served as high-class confectioneries at ceremonies.

[Fumio Sawa]

Nanban sweets

Around the time when Japanese sweets were established, Nanban sweets arrived as a completely new sweet. At the end of the 16th century, with the arrival of Nanban people and the introduction of Christianity, Nanban sweets were brought to Japan through Nagasaki, but after the isolationist edict, these Nanban sweets were remade to suit Japanese tastes. Butter and milk were eliminated, and even castella, which is very similar to the Western sponge cake, was passed down to the present day as a purely Japanese Nanban sweet made only from egg yolks and sugar. The same can be said for Matsuyama's specialty tarts, Hakata's egg somen noodles, Saga's Maruboro, and Kyoto's Bolo. Other Nanban sweets that remain today include konpeito, aruheito, biscuits, and carmela. In particular, aritou sugar is incorporated into Kyoto dried confections, adding a vibrant touch of color.

[Fumio Sawa]

Miscellaneous sweets and Kyoto sweets

Candy, which was a precious sweetener in the Nara period, became available to the common people in the Edo period, and street vendors such as Sarashi-ame and Kinako-ame became popular as cheap sweets for children. Although the ingredients themselves were once valuable, as the ingredients became more plentiful, many products fell into the category of miscellaneous confectionery or cheap sweets. In addition to monaka and kintsuba, which were miscellaneous confectionery from the beginning, manju, rakugan, and yokan, which have maintained the status of high-grade confectionery, have a different character from when wagashi was first established and are considered to be miscellaneous or ordinary. Nanban confectionery is no exception. Today's high-grade confectionery has evolved to refer to confectionery made with carefully selected ingredients and by skilled craftsmen, even if it is monaka.

At this stage in the development of sweets, it was Kyoto sweets that came to have their own unique characteristics. Kyoto sweets, which were made based on the customs of the court and were appropriate for the royal castle, were primarily used as offerings and gifts, and many of them were delivered to the Imperial Palace. Kyoto sweets also influenced the confectionery of feudal lords, and to this day they have been considered high-class sweets.

[Fumio Sawa]

Types of Japanese sweets

Japanese sweets can be broadly categorized into fresh sweets, baked sweets (semi-fresh sweets), dried sweets, and candy sweets.

Of these, the fresh sweets that have dominated Japanese sweets are manju, various types of kneaded yokan, kneaded sweets such as nerikiri and kinton, steamed sweets such as karukan from Kagoshima and saoshika from Tokushima, and mochi such as sakura mochi, kashiwa mochi, uguisu mochi, dango, daifuku mochi, warabi mochi, kuzu mochi, yubeshi, chimaki, and gyuhi. However, there are also many fresh sweets that are complex in nature, such as the steamed stick-shaped sweets Yamamichi from Nakatsugawa, Gifu Prefecture, sasakuri, uiro and steamed yokan from various regions, and the kneaded stick-shaped sweet Chidorikan from Yasugi, Shimane Prefecture. In addition, fresh sweets include Kintamakan and Mizuyokan, which are summer sweets that evoke a cooling sensation, as well as Tsugaruno, which is an apple-based paste, from Hirosaki, Aomori Prefecture, Hatsukoi, from Nakatsugawa, Gifu Prefecture, Makigaki, from Tokushima Prefecture and Yabakei, Nakatsu City, Oita Prefecture, Kakiyokan, from Gifu Prefecture, Maruyumochi, from Wajima, Ishikawa Prefecture, Iida, Nagano Prefecture, and Takahashi, Okayama Prefecture, and Yuneri, from Oita City.

In contrast to these fresh sweets, chestnut manju, Chinese sweets, chato, dorayaki, castella, and other sweets fall into the category of baked goods or semi-fresh sweets.

Among the dried confections, which are primarily rakugan, there are famous rakugan all over the country, such as 'Choseiden', which makes use of the flavor of Wasanbon sugar, as well as Morokoshi rakugan (red bean), Soba rakugan, Mame rakugan (soybean), Mugi rakugan, and Imo rakugan, and in addition to these crispy rakugan, soft rakugan such as 'Shiogama' and 'Yamakawa' that make use of the flavor of glutinous rice have also been made. Dried confections include rice crackers such as okoshi and salted rice crackers, arare, kakimochi, gokabou, fried confections such as karinto and ageokaki, boro, and confections that use beans as the main ingredient, such as goshikimame. Candied eggplant, butterbur, summer mandarin oranges, and pomelos, which became popular from the end of the Edo period, as well as various sweetened amanatto beans, can also be considered higashi in the broad sense. The skin of monaka is called senbei-dane, and is originally a type of higashi, but when bean paste is wrapped in this skin to make monaka, it is included in namagashi.

Among candy sweets, aritou, which evolved from Nanban sweets, was still expensive in the Edo period. Sarashi candy was the mainstream candy for the masses, but in modern times, as candies such as drops and caramel became more popular, aritou also became more popular. Sarashi candy has mostly been popular at festivals and fairs, or sold by peddlers. Candy sweets also include sugar candies. Examples include kinka tou, hakkou, and shoga tou, which are made by dissolving sugar or rock sugar in water, boiling it down, and pouring it into a mold. Konpeito, which is also a dried confectionery, belongs to the hanging type of sugar candy.

Even if tea ceremony guests are offered country manju or salted rice crackers that are unrelated to the season, if it is early spring, a single blossom of a blossoming plum blossom on the eaves, or if it is late autumn, a single maple leaf, will be added to the sweets, creating a seasonal scene in the small world inside the sweets container. The Japanese have been accustomed to such elegant ways of enjoying and tasting tea since ancient times. And as the seasons change, they have prepared sweets appropriate to the season and have found comfort in their tea time.

[Fumio Sawa]

Western sweets

Like Japanese sweets, Western sweets can be divided into fresh and dried sweets.

Western sweets grew into luxurious luxury items with the development of dairy farming. Wheat, the ingredient of sweets, can be traced back to 6000 BC in northern Iran and 3500 BC in Turkey, and the production of superior varieties through crossbreeding is estimated to date back to 2000 BC. There are also theories about the origin of butter, such as that it originated in Babylonia around 3000 BC or in ancient India. In ancient Greece and ancient Rome, butter and cheese were made by milking goats and sheep, and in Europe north of the Alps, they were made by milking cows. The sweetener sugar is said to have first been discovered in 325 BC when Alexander the Great, during his eastern expedition, was advancing his army to India, where his soldiers discovered sugarcane growing wild on the Indus River. At that time, it is said that "there were reeds that could produce honey without the need for bees," which shows that honey was already in existence as a sweetener. On the other hand, chicken farming had also progressed considerably during the Roman period, with the Leghorn being considered a suitable breed for laying eggs. By adding flavorings and Western liquor to these ingredients, the prototype of the Western-style cake known as "yonama" was formed.

Fresh confections include sponge cakes, pies, baked apples, cream puffs, eclairs, puddings, bavarois, jellies, muffins, soufflés, waffles, doughnuts, marshmallows, chestnut glacés, sweet potatoes, etc. Dried confections include biscuits, cookies, sables, crackers, candies, chocolates, wafers, etc. Frozen desserts include ice cream and sherbet, and a special type of dried confection is chewing gum.

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. This baked goods allow you to enjoy the taste and aroma of milk and eggs, and the mellowness. Depending on your preference, you can pour powdered sugar or pour cream sauce with vanilla or lemon essence. French baked crepes. Flour, sugar, eggs and milk are kneaded, strained, then mixed with butter, then added salt and liquor, and baked thinly in a frying pan. It is called because it is baked like crepes. Jam and marmalade are wrapped with this skin.

Candies can be divided into soft and hard candies. Soft can be caramel, nougat and bonbon, while hard candies include drop, butter scotch, toffee, and china marble.

Just as various types of bean paste are the main ingredients in Japanese sweets, flour, milk, butter and eggs are essential in Western sweets. Gelatin is also used instead of agar, and the equivalent of the yuzu aroma is lemon and vanilla essence. Western liquor (rum, brandy, curacao, wine) enhances the flavor, and candied fruit peels, such as lemon peel and orange peel, are also used to add color.

Western sweets are also served as a dessert course in Western cuisine, but most of them are made with bavarois, pudding, jelly, ice cream, etc. Wedding cakes with sponge cakes decorated, birthday cakes, and Christmas cakes are equivalent to Japanese sweets. In addition, in the United States, pumpkin pie is made on Thanksgiving (the fourth Thursday of November), and in Germany, there are sweets that are associated with events, such as Baumkuchen (wood grain sweets) being baked on Christmas cakes.

As mentioned above, some of these European confections were introduced as Nanban confectioneries at the end of the 16th century, but were highly Japanese-styled and accepted. The birth of authentic European-style confectioneries in Japan had to be followed by the Meiji Restoration. For sweets from various European and American countries, see the separate section, "Western Confectionery."

[Fumio Sawa]

Confectionery situation after the Meiji Restoration

In August 1543 (Tenmon 12), Portuguese ships introduced firearms to Japan. Since then, Japanese people have made practical items into art, such as inlaying guns. This tendency of Japanese people has also come to mind over sweets. In the Nara period, dairy products were discovered, and during the Warring States period, the arrival of Nanban sweets was seen, but they were unable to popularize them until the end of the Edo period. And, just like they had decorated matchlock guns, they aimed to create sweets with a deep artistic smell from simple materials. Amid the rapid upheaval and change of the black ships at the end of the Edo period, the opening of the port, and the establishment of the new Meiji government, the Japanese tried to regain the centuries of civilization. This change was reflected in the making of confectionery. First, Egawa Tarozaemon, the archdian of Nirayama, Izu, produced bread during the Ansei era (1854-1860) and used it as a food source for Western-style training. In 1860 (Manen 1), after the opening of the port, a Japanese bakery opened in Honmoku, Yokohama, and in 1868 (Keio 4), Yonezu Matsuzo, Fuugetsudo, served bread for 5,000 officers and soldiers of the Chimbu army. Kimuraya (the name of the store at the time of its opening was Buneido) opened a bakery in Tokyo in 1869 (Meiji 2), but at the time it was called "an bean paste bun." The so-called an bean paste bread was created in 1874. Ten years later, bread, sweet bread, bean paste, and hard bread were on sale. Fukuzawa Yukichi taught the benefits of milk in 1870, but in 1873, a prototype of butter and milk powder was made in Hokkaido, and Emperor Meiji also sampled ice cream in Hokkaido. In 1875, Yonezu Keigetsudo exhibited cakes at the exhibition, followed by chocolate, biscuits and drops in 1878, and marshmallows in 1892. Nakamuraya released cream bread in 1905, and Morinaga Seikatsu released chocolate bars in 1909. In 1914, Morinaga sold boxed caramel, and in 1918 chewing gum was imported to Japan. However, gum sales quickly increased after World War II.

The demand for Western confectionery increased in the early Showa era, and a variety of Western confectionery were sold and popularized by Morinaga Seika, Meiji Seika, Niitaka Seika, Fujiya, the Olympics, Fuji Ice, German Bakery, Morozov, etc. However, in Japan, which entered the Pacific War in 1937 (Showa 12), confectionery called confectionery disappeared from stores around 1942. After the war in 1945 (Showa 20), it was only around 1948 that cakes began to appear in coffee shops.

Japanese sweets have beenaring the same fate as Western sweets, but there is some rise and fall in the rest. Despite the fact that cakes grew with the Japanese Christmas fuss after the war, sales of Japanese sweets temporarily slumped. However, as a travel boom began to develop an atmosphere that rethinks the home of the Japanese hearts, local sweets became popular, and the famous sweets of long-established brands and old-fashioned sweets also returned. The revival of cotton candy and okonomiyaki can be said to be a part of this.

[Fumio Sawa]

"Ishibashi Kosaku, "Hometown of Candy" (1967, Miraisha)" ▽ " Edited and published by Joshi Nutrition University Press, "200 Sweets That Anyone Can Make" (1970)"

[Reference items] | Local sweets | Chimaki | Chinese sweets | Tang sweets | Manju | Western sweets
Akita Morokoshi
Akita Prefecture ©Shogakukan ">

Akita Morokoshi

Akumaki
Kagoshima Prefecture © Kagoshima City ">

Akumaki

Sweetened beans
Clockwise from the left in the foreground: adzuki beans, white kidney beans, red kidney beans, and warbler beans ©Shogakukan

Sweetened beans

Ayame sugar
It can also be read as "Ariheitou", Arhel, or Arihei . ©Shogakukan

Ayame sugar

Uiro
Nagoya Uiro © Aichi Prefecture Tourism Association, General Incorporated Association ">

Uiro

Bake
Grilled with vegetable paste wrapped in wheat flour skin. Nagano Prefecture © Shinshu/Nagano Prefecture Tourism Association ">

Bake

Castella
©Shogakukan ">

Castella

Golden sugar
©Ishikawa Prefecture Tourism Federation ">

Golden sugar

Confetti
©Shogakukan ">

Confetti

Five Family Treasures
Saitama Prefecture © Kumagaya City ">

Five Family Treasures

Shiogama
Miyagi Prefecture © Miyagi Prefecture Tourism Division ">

Shiogama

Tart (Matsuyama City)
© Matsuyama Tourism Convention Association, Public Interest Incorporated Foundation ">

Tart (Matsuyama City)

Korean candy
Kumamoto Prefecture © Kumamoto Prefecture ">

Korean candy

Rolled persimmon
Tokushima Prefecture ©Shogakukan ">

Rolled persimmon

Maruyu mochiko
Ishikawa Prefecture ©Shogakukan ">

Maruyu mochiko


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

食事のほかに茶うけなどに食べる嗜好品(しこうひん)の一種。古くは植物の果実を用い「果子」とも書いた。「果」は「菓」の本字で、ともに「木の実」を意味する。日本で「くだもの」というのも「木の物」の意味である。『続日本紀(しょくにほんぎ)』天平(てんぴょう)8年(736)11月条に「橘(たちばな)は果子の長上、人の好む所」とあり、『日葡(にっぽ)辞書』(1603刊)にも「菓子Quaxi(クワシ)、果実、とくに食後の果物をいう」とある。一方、奈良時代に中国から製法の伝わった、米・麦の粉に甘葛(あまずら)、飴(あめ)、蜂蜜(はちみつ)を加えてつくる団子のような食物は、唐菓子(とうがし)または「からくだもの」とよばれた。初めその形は果物(くだもの)の形を模したものが多かった。この系統はその後、単に菓子とよばれ、果実のほうが水菓子(みずがし)または「くだもの」とよばれるようになる。今日では、米・麦などの穀類、豆・そばなどの雑穀類および砂糖を原料とする和菓子と、小麦粉にバター、ミルクなどの酪農製品や、砂糖、鶏卵、香料などを組み合わせた洋菓子とに大別される。

[沢 史生]

和菓子の伝承

果物については、『古事記』に、伊弉諾尊(いざなぎのみこと)が黄泉国(よみのくに)から逃げ帰るとき、蒲子(えびかずらのみ)(野葡萄(のぶどう))や桃子(もものみ)を投げて、追ってくる黄泉醜女(よもつしこめ)の手から逃れることができたという説話がある。また垂仁(すいにん)天皇の代に、帝(みかど)の命を受けた田道間守(たじまもり)が、常世(とこよ)の国へ、不老不死の薬である非時香果(ときじくのかぐのこのみ)(橘(たちばな))を探しに出かけた話もある。橘は田道間花の略ともいい、田道間守を祀(まつ)る菓祖神社(京都市)には、橘の木が植えられている。『日本書紀』には、神武(じんむ)天皇即位前紀に、武器の威を借りずに天下を平定することを祈って、八十平瓮(やそひらか)をもって水無しに飴(たがね)をつくったという説話がある。「たがね」は固飴(かたあめ)の古語である。奈良時代には、飴の原料として米を納めたことが知られ、また『延喜式(えんぎしき)』(927成立)の大膳(だいぜん)式には、好物料、海菜料、生菜料としての飴が定められている。

[沢 史生]

中国の菓子

日本の古代における菓子は文献に乏しいが、隣の中国ではすでに饅頭(まんじゅう)や粽(ちまき)が現れている。

 饅頭の起源については、3世紀ごろ晋(しん)の束晢(そくせき)が「もしそれ三春の初、陰陽交際、寒気すでに除き、温、熱にいたらず。ときに享宴すれば、すなわち曼頭(まんとう)設くべし」と述べている。曼(幔幕(まんまく))を巡らせて宴を張り、その宴の冒頭に供する食物がすなわち曼頭(饅頭)であり、当時、饅頭が前菜的な食物であったことが推察される。また、三国時代に蜀(しょく)の丞相(じょうしょう)、諸葛孔明(しょかつこうめい)(181―234)が南征中、土民(南蛮)が神への供物とした人間の首(蛮頭)を、羊や豚の肉を麺皮(めんぴ)でくるんだ蒸し物にかえさせたために、蛮頭が饅頭になったとも、土民を欺瞞(ぎまん)したことから瞞頭が饅頭になったとも伝えられている。当時の饅頭については「蜀の饌(せん)(すぐ食べられるもの)なり」とあり、また『晋書(しんじょ)』に「蒸餅の上、さいて十字をつくる」とも記されている。饅頭の表面に十文字の切れ目を入れ、はじけないようにしたもので、当時の饅頭がかなり大きかったことがわかる。

 粽の始まりは、戦国時代(前403~前221)の楚(そ)の詩人で憂国の士、屈原(くつげん)の故事に由来するという。屈原は讒言(ざんげん)によって退けられ、憂憤のあまり「懐沙賦(かいさふ)」を書き残し汨羅(べきら)(汨水)の淵(ふち)に身を投げ自殺した。屈原の志を哀れんだ楚人は、忌み日の5月5日になると、竹筒に米を詰めて蒸した筒粽を水に投じ、その霊を慰めたという。しかし、漢の建武年間(25~55)、長沙(ちょうさ)の人が白昼に屈原の霊と出会い、「せっかくの供物を蛟竜(こうりょう)(みずち)に奪われてきた、筒粽を蛟竜の嫌う楝(おうち)(栴檀(せんだん))の葉と五色の絹糸で包んでほしい」と訴えられたという。以後、この汨羅の遺風が伝えられて、粽には五色の糸が魔除(まよ)けに用いられたという。屈原は水神としても崇(あが)められており、同じく水神とされる蛟竜の伝承とはつじつまのあわないところもあるが、後世の付会によるものであろう。5、6世紀ごろの南北朝時代になると、粽は神への供物という観念が一般化した。6世紀に著された中国湖北・湖南地方の年中行事書『荊楚(けいそ)歳時記』によると、粽は端午(たんご)節(5月5日)、夏至(げし)節の食物であったらしい。当時の粽は、粟(あわ)を混入した糯米(もちごめ)を葦(あし)や真菰(まこも)の葉で三角形にくるみ、濃い灰汁(あく)で煮あげたものであった。この製法は『和名抄(わみょうしょう)』にも収載されているが、鹿児島県の郷土菓子「あくまき」には古い製法が残されており、県内に遣唐使を送り出した坊之津(ぼうのつ)があるだけに関連が考えられ興味深い。これら中国起源の菓子類は、文物の将来とともに日本にもたらされ、やがて日本独特の菓子を形成していくことになる。奈良時代に伝来した梅枝(ばいし)、桂心(けいしん)、団喜(だんき)などの「八種(やくさ)の唐菓子(からくだもの)」はとくに有名である。なお、現行の中国菓子については、「中国菓子」の項を参照。

[沢 史生]

常食から和菓子への変遷

縄文時代以前は農耕栽培は行われず、狩猟・漁労の時代であった。縄文末期すでに農耕の萌芽(ほうが)はみられるが、稲作が本格的に行われるようになるのは弥生(やよい)時代である。以来、米の生産量はしだいに増し、主食の座を占めるにつれ、いわゆる菓子である果実(桃、梨(なし)、杏(あんず)、胡桃(くるみ)、栃(とち)、松、桑の実、瓜(うり)など)は、まだ完全な嗜好品には至らないが、しだいに副食品としての性格を帯びていった。

 穀類による菓子らしいものがつくられたのは、ほぼ奈良初期とみられる。素材は米、大麦、小麦、粟、黍(きび)、大豆(だいず)、小豆(あずき)、ささげ、稗(ひえ)、そばなどで、調味には塩、酢、醤(ひしお)、胡麻(ごま)(油)のほか、甘味料として甘葛煎(せん)、柿糖(かきとう)、蜂蜜、飴が用いられた。しかし食用油や蜂蜜、飴などは庶民の手の届かない貴重品であった。739年(天平11)に渤海(ぼっかい)使節が蜂蜜をもたらした記録があり、754年(天平勝宝6)には唐僧鑑真(がんじん)が朝廷に黒糖を献上している。黒糖はこれが輸入の初見であり、蜂蜜とともに薬用扱いされ、ごく一部の貴族層に賞味されたにすぎない。

 これらの素材や調味を用いてつくられた菓子の大方は、製粉したものを焼くか、油で揚げるかであった。『延喜式』には、「団喜(だんき)」などの唐菓物(からくだもの)8種のほか、「餛飩(こんとん)」(後のうどん、すいとんの類であるが汁粉風もあったらしい)、「粔籹(こめ)」(おこし)、「餺飥(はくたく)」(ほうとう。山梨県のほうとう、岩手・青森県のはっとそばなどにその名残(なごり)がある)など、果餅(かべい)14種が示されている。唐菓子、果餅などの菓子は仏教文化の一端として、遣唐使や留学僧、渡来人らによってもたらされ、以来緩やかな歩みながら和菓子独特の分野へと発展していく。しかし遺憾なことに日本では酪農製品と菓子の結合をみないうちに、その交流の機会を遮断されてしまった。

 676年(天武天皇5)、天武(てんむ)天皇は仏教の戒律から牛、馬、犬、猿(さる)、鶏の肉食を禁じた。しかし、搾乳はなお続けられていた。大宝律令(たいほうりつりょう)(701)では、「乳戸(にゅうこ)」(搾乳の家)が指定され、713年(和銅6)には山城(やましろ)国(京都)の乳戸50戸に対し、1日3升1合5勺の牛乳を御料として献上するように命じている。『延喜式』にも諸国酥貢(そこう)の制が定められており、乳戸から1日8合(やせ牛はその半量)の牛乳を貢進させた。酥は牛乳を10分の1に煮つめた練乳であり、酥から醍醐(だいご)(今日のチーズ)がつくられた。当時、醍醐味は五味(乳味、酪味、生酥(しょうそ)味、熟酥味、醍醐味)の最上位に位置づけられたのである。酥から醍醐までの過程でバターもつくられたわけだから、こうした酪農製品が日本の菓子に利用されていたならば、今日あえて和菓子と洋菓子を区分する必要もないほどの進展と変化を遂げていたかもしれない。せっかく貢納された酪農製品も、しょせんは貴族、高僧の口にしか入らなかった。

[沢 史生]

和菓子の形成

仏教文化は確かに唐菓子や果餅など、和菓子の原点に最初の開花期をもたらした。奈良、平安、鎌倉時代を通じ、和菓子の性格は主食またはその補食的存在に終始したが、南北朝末期から室町時代に入ると、喫茶との結合によって驚異的な発達を遂げる。

 鎌倉時代すでに禅宗の普及とともに点心(てんしん)(定時の食事の前後に軽い物を食べること)の習慣が広まっており、禅僧は早朝や昼時に饂飩(うんどん)やそうめんなどを食べたのち茶の子(茶うけ)で茶を飲んだ。しかし、3食の習慣が始まると点心、茶の子の区別はなくなり、同義に使われるようになった。同時代の『尺素往来(せきそおうらい)』や『庭訓往来(ていきんおうらい)』には、茶の子に竜眼(りゅうがん)、胡桃、栗(くり)、串柿(くしがき)、おこし米(ごめ)などをあげており、一般的にみた茶菓子はまだまだ質素であった。

[沢 史生]

まんじゅう

1350年(正平5・観応1)、竜山徳見禅師は在元(げん)45年の修行を終えて帰国したが、禅師に随行して渡来した宋(そう)人のなかに、浙江(せっこう)省出身の林浄因(りんじょういん)と3人の息子がいた。徳見は、足利直義(あしかがただよし)の請いを入れ、京都建仁(けんにん)寺35世となったが、林父子は京都には赴かず、南朝の賀名生行在所(あのうあんざいしょ)(奈良県吉野)で後村上(ごむらかみ)天皇に謁し、まんじゅうを献上したという。この献上まんじゅうは、家伝によれば、小麦粉に山芋(やまのいも)(山薬(さんやく)とも)をすりおろして混ぜ、その膨れ作用を応用してつくった薯蕷(じょよ)まんじゅう(山薬まんじゅう)である。餡(あん)には、当時輸入量の少なかった砂糖を用いた小豆の漉し餡(こしあん)が使われた。林浄因は田道間守とともに日本の菓祖神として祀られているが、奈良市漢国(かんこく)神社の境内には単独に林(りん)神社として祀られ、関係者の崇敬を集めてきた。林氏は塩瀬(しおぜ)姓を帝から賜り、林氏塩瀬を名のる。3人の息子のうち1人が奈良でまんじゅう屋渡世に入り、表面に本紅(ほんべに)で「林」の字を押す奈良まんじゅうの祖となった。この奈良まんじゅう屋林氏塩瀬は、さらに奈良(南家)と京都(北家)に分かれて、室町時代にかけて『源氏物語林逸抄』の著者で『節用集』(饅頭屋本)を刊行した宗二、塩瀬袱紗(ふくさ)を創製した宗味をはじめ、京の名刹(めいさつ)の住職、書家など多くの人材を輩出している。林氏塩瀬は学問、武芸、織布など高度知識をもつ渡来系一族で、その一端としてまんじゅうの技術を披露したのである。

 室町時代には、このほか安価な菜(な/さい)まんじゅう(野菜入り)が庶民にもてはやされた。その名残として信州(長野県)の「お焼き」が今日におもかげを伝えている。「菜」は「肴(な)」「魚(な)」に通じ、野菜とは限定しない。まんじゅうの中身が野菜や肉であれば、中華まんじゅうの肉まんであるが、肉食禁忌の時代でもあり、肉を材料としたまんじゅうは売り出されなかった。

 肉まんについては、奈良時代にあった餛飩(こんとん)の製法に類似性がみられる。小麦粉をこねた薄皮で、野菜や肉を刻んだものをくるみ、汁に入れて食する法と、小豆餡をくるんで汁粉風に仕立てる法があったようである。肉まんや餡まんに発展しうる素地がすでにあったといえる。また、『吾妻鏡(あづまかがみ)』建久(けんきゅう)4年(1193)5月16日条に、富士の裾野(すその)に巻狩を催した源頼朝(よりとも)が、勢子(せこ)たちに「十字」を与えたとある。かなり大きなまんじゅうであり、膨れ作用もあったからこそ十文字の切れ目を入れたものであろう。このように塩瀬まんじゅうに先行する例はいくつかあるものの、完成されたまんじゅうの優美な姿、風雅な餡が、おりからの茶道興隆の波にのり、この菓子を一躍高名にしたといえるであろう。

 山芋の膨れ作用を応用した塩瀬まんじゅう系と対比されるのが、甘酒の発酵原理を利用した酒(さか)まんじゅうである。酒まんじゅうの仕法は1242年(仁治3)、7年間の宋留学から帰朝した円爾弁円(えんにべんえん)(聖一国師)がもたらしたと伝えられる。商品化したのは京都の虎(とら)屋黒川、伏見(ふしみ)の鶴(つる)屋(駿河(するが)屋の前身)が先駆であった。虎屋の酒まんじゅうはふっくらと大ぶり、駿河屋のは平たく表面に「本」の字の焼き印を押すので「本の字饅頭」と称した。しかし甘酒の歴史は古いので、弁円の創製以前に、酒まんじゅう製法の原理はわかっていたと考えられる。今日のまんじゅうは、その製法によって薯蕷まんじゅうか酒まんじゅうかの、いずれかの系列に分類することができる。

[沢 史生]

落雁

落雁(らくがん)は姿が端正で風味淡泊、干菓子(ひがし)のなかの打菓子(うちがし)であり、茶道の興隆につれてもっとも発達した菓子であった。江戸時代の辞書『和訓栞(わくんのしおり)』によれば、中国の明(みん)に軟落甘という菓子があり、略して落甘になったといわれる。落雁には次のような説もある。京都が応仁(おうにん)の大乱で疲弊しきっていた文明(ぶんめい)年間(1469~1487)、山城国壬生(みぶ)の板倉治部(じぶ)広定という武士が、御所の荒廃を悲しみ、手作りの落甘を後土御門(ごつちみかど)天皇に献上した。寒晒(かんざらし)の糯米を蒸し、陽光にさらして臼(うす)で搗(つ)き、炒(い)ってから甘味を加え、黒胡麻(くろごま)を散らして一寸四方の木型で押したものであった。帝が落甘の白地を雪に、黒胡麻を雁に見立てて、近江(おうみ)八景の「堅田(かたた)の落雁」に例えたところから、打菓子全般を落雁と総称するようになり、板倉氏は自家の製品を御所落雁と称したという。のち本願寺蓮如(れんにょ)に従って吉崎道場に下り、さらに、蓮如の二男蓮乗が越中(えっちゅう)(富山県)井波(いなみ)の瑞泉寺(ずいせんじ)に赴いたとき、これに随行して定着した。1581年(天正9)板倉五郎兵衛弘方(ひろまさ)は、瑞泉寺顕秀(けんしゅう)が佐々成政(さっさなりまさ)に敗れた際、武士を捨て、以後代々家伝の製菓を業とするようになった。現在は御所落雁のほか、糸巻きの形をした紅白の糸巻落雁がある。1625年(寛永2)、御所落雁をいっそう典雅にした打菓子を金沢の森下八左衛門が創作した。黒胡麻にかえて本紅を用い、紅白の唐墨(からすみ)形に仕上げ、菓子に華やかさを添えた。唐墨形の発想は加賀藩主3代前田利常(としつね)で、菓名となった「長生殿(ちょうせいでん)」は小堀遠州が自ら筆をとって命名した。この豪華な大名菓子は、今日なお落雁の上品(じょうほん)として揺るぎない地位を占めている。この時代になると輸入品の砂糖も入手が楽になっていた事情も、上菓子の創作には幸いしていた。

[沢 史生]

羊かん・求肥

まんじゅう、落雁とともに上菓子にあげられる羊かん(羊羹)は、もともと仏教文化がもたらした料理の一種である。本来は羊肉でつくった汁物の「羹(あつもの)」で、日本には禅僧が伝えたが、肉食を忌む日本では鎌倉時代すでに小豆を主材料とした蒸し物をつくりだし、汁の実として使われた。茶道の発達はこの蒸し物を茶の子に用い、今日の蒸し羊かんの原型をつくり出したのである。蒸し固める蒸し羊かんの仕法を、ところてんを加えることにより練り固める方法にかえたのは、先に「本の字饅頭」を世に出した伏見の鶴屋の5代目、岡本善右衛門(ぜんえもん)であった。鶴屋の練り羊かんは1589年(天正17)、京都聚楽第(じゅらくだい)において豊臣(とよとみ)秀吉から大名諸侯に披露された。その姿は白小豆を紅色に仕上げた棹物(さおもの)で、桃山時代を象徴するような華麗さが、紅の深い色からにおいたっていた。今日では何色でも練り羊かんというが、駿河屋では紅色のものだけを「煉(ねり)羊羹」とよび、往昔の栄光を伝統の色にとどめている。1626年(寛永3)、名菓「長生殿」が生まれた翌年、金沢で浅香忠左衛門が赤小豆の練り羊かんを完成させた。これが今日一般的になっている羊かんの色合いである。藩主前田利常は忠左衛門に下(さが)り藤を染め抜いた「藤村(ふじむら)」ののれんを与え激賞した。羊かんの色合いを濃紫の藤に例えたのである。宝暦(ほうれき)年間(1751~1764)江戸に出た藤村は、本郷の加賀屋敷の一角に店を構えた。以来、江戸屈指の名舗として今日に至っている。

 室町期から江戸初期にかけて、まんじゅう、落雁、羊かんは完成品として世に出され、確固たる菓子の地歩を築いた。茶道の興隆に触発された和菓子は、こののち、茶道とは車の両輪のように、見て美しく、食してうまく、しかも茶の味わいをじゃますることなく、ときには豪華に、またときにはつつましげな姿につくり継がれ、素材の組合せや、取合せによるおもしろさなども考えられて、江戸末期までには多様な和菓子が出そろっていたのである。室町時代に薬の口直しに用いられたういろう(外郎)は、蒸し羊かんの製法と似た作り方をされながら、餅(もち)の性格をもったまま棹物として今日に伝えられ、練り羊かんとはまったく違ってしまった。

 また、朝鮮飴(熊本産)にみられる求肥(ぎゅうひ)飴の製法は、江戸初期に求肥菓子として独立していき、これが練り切りやきんとんと結び付いて高級な菓子につくられた。当時の求肥は、まんじゅう、落雁、羊かんに肩を並べうる上菓子であった。これらの菓子にはそれぞれ「格式」のようなものがあり、格調高い菓子として式菓子などにも供されてきた。

[沢 史生]

南蛮菓子

和菓子の確立期と前後して、まったく目新しい甘味として到来したのが南蛮(なんばん)菓子である。16世紀末、南蛮人の来航やキリスト教の伝来に伴って、南蛮菓子は長崎を窓口にしてもたらされたが、その南蛮菓子も鎖国令以後は日本人の嗜好にあった和菓子風につくりかえられていった。バターやミルクは退けられ、洋菓子のスポンジケーキに酷似するカステラにしても、卵黄と砂糖だけに絞られた純和菓子的な南蛮菓子として今日に伝えられたのである。松山名物のタルトや、博多(はかた)の鶏卵素麺(けいらんそうめん)、佐賀の丸芳露(まるぼうろ)や京都のボーロなどにも同様のことがいえる。このほか南蛮菓子として今日に残っているものには、金平糖(こんぺいとう)、有平糖(あるへいとう)、ビスカウト(ビスケット)、カルメラなどがある。とくに有平糖は京干菓子のなかに組み込まれ、華やかな彩りを添えている。

[沢 史生]

雑菓子と京菓子

奈良時代の貴重な甘味料であった飴は、江戸時代には庶民的な存在となり、振売りのさらし飴、きな粉飴は駄菓子として子供たちの人気を集めた。かつて素材そのものが貴重品であっても、材料が潤沢になるにつれ、雑菓子、駄菓子の部類に入ったものは多い。当初から雑菓子であった最中(もなか)、金鍔(きんつば)などのほか、上菓子の格調を維持してきたまんじゅう、落雁、羊かんにも、和菓子の成立期とは性格を異にし、雑菓子、並菓子的なものがある。南蛮菓子もまた例外ではない。今日的な上菓子とは、それが最中であれ、吟味した材料と優れた職人の手になった菓子をさすようにかわってきた。

 こうした菓子の発展段階にあって独自の性格をもつに至るのは京菓子である。王城の地にふさわしく有職故実(ゆうそくこじつ)にちなんでつくられた京菓子は、主として供饌(ぐせん)用、献上用であって、その多くは禁裏へ納められた。京菓子はまた大名菓子にも影響を与え、今日まで上菓子に位置づけられてきたのである。

[沢 史生]

和菓子の種類

和菓子は生(なま)菓子、焼き物(半生菓子)、干(ひ)菓子、飴(あめ)菓子に大別される。

 このうち和菓子の主流を歩んできた生菓子はまんじゅう、各種の練り羊かんに代表される棹物、練り切り、きんとんなどの練り物、鹿児島の軽羹(かるかん)、徳島の小男鹿(さおしか)などの蒸し物、桜餅、柏(かしわ)餅、鶯(うぐいす)餅、団子、大福(だいふく)餅、わらび餅、葛(くず)餅、柚餅子(ゆべし)、粽(ちまき)、求肥などの餅類であるが、蒸し棹物である岐阜県中津川の山路(やまみち)、ささ栗、各地のういろうや蒸し羊かん、練り切りの棹物である島根県安来(やすぎ)の千鳥羹(ちどりかん)のように、複合した性格の生菓子も多い。また夏季の菓子として涼感を誘う金玉かんや水羊かんも生菓子に含まれるほか、リンゴを素材とした餡物である青森県弘前(ひろさき)のつがる野、岐阜県中津川の初恋、徳島県や大分県中津(なかつ)市耶馬渓(やばけい)の巻柿(まきがき)、岐阜県の柿羊羹、石川県輪島(わじま)、長野県飯田、岡山県高梁(たかはし)の丸柚餅子、大分市の柚練(ゆねり)なども生菓子のうちである。

 これらの生菓子に対して栗まんじゅう、唐(とう)まんじゅう、茶通(ちゃつう)、どら焼き、カステラなどは焼き物あるいは半生菓子の部類に入る。

 落雁類の打菓子を筆頭とする干菓子では、「長生殿」のように和三盆(わさんぼん)糖の風味を生かしたもののほか、諸越(もろこし)落雁(小豆)、蕎麦(そば)落雁、豆落雁(大豆)、麦落雁、芋(いも)落雁など全国に名物落雁があるが、これらの歯ざわりのさわやかな打菓子のほかに、「しおがま」や「山川」のように糯米の風味を生かした軟落雁もつくられてきた。干菓子には、おこし、塩煎餅(せんべい)を含む煎餅類、あられ、かきもち、五家宝(ごかぼう)、かりんとうや揚げおかきなど油で揚げた菓子、ボーロ、あるいは五色豆などのように豆を主材とした菓子も含まれる。また江戸末期から流行した茄子(なす)や蕗(ふき)、夏みかん、ザボン(ボンタン)などの砂糖漬けや各種の甘納豆(あまなっとう)も、広義の干菓子とみることができる。なお最中の皮は煎餅種(だね)といい、本来は干菓子の仲間であるが、最中としてこの皮に餡をくるんだ場合は生菓子に含まれる。

 飴菓子では、南蛮菓子から移行した有平糖が江戸時代はなお高価な存在であった。大衆飴としてはさらし飴が主流を占めていたが、近代になってドロップやキャラメルなどキャンディー類が普及するにつれ、有平糖も大衆化していった。さらし飴は多くは縁日や祭礼、あるいは行商の振売りにより親しまれてきた。飴菓子には糖菓子も含まれる。砂糖または氷砂糖を水に溶かし、煮つめて型に流し込んだ金花糖、はっか糖、生姜(しょうが)糖などがある。干菓子でもある金平糖は糖菓子のなかでも掛け物の部類に入る。

 たとえ季節にはかかわりのない田舎(いなか)まんじゅうや塩煎餅を茶の子に供する場合でも、それが早春であれば軒先にほころびそめた梅の一輪、秋深いころであれば紅葉のひとひらを菓子に添えて、菓子器の中の小さな世界に四季の景色をつくりだす。そうした風雅な楽しみ方、味わい方を日本人は古代から身につけていた。そして季節の移ろいには、それにふさわしい菓子を用意して、茶のひとときに安らぎを得てきたのである。

[沢 史生]

洋菓子

洋菓子も和菓子と同様に生菓子と干菓子に分けられる。

 洋菓子は酪農の発達とともに華麗な嗜好品に育っていった。その素材である小麦は北イランで紀元前6000年、トルコでは前3500年までさかのぼることができ、交配による優良品種の生産さえも前2000年と推定されている。またバターの起源も前3000年ごろのバビロニア説と古代インド説があり、古代ギリシアや古代ローマではヤギ、ヒツジから乳を搾ってバターやチーズをつくり、アルプス以北のヨーロッパではウシから乳を搾り、それらをつくっていた。甘味料の砂糖は、前325年に東征中のアレクサンドロス大王がインドに軍を進めていたとき、インダス川に自生しているサトウキビを兵士が発見したのに始まるという。このとき「ミツバチを必要とせず、蜜の採取できる葦が生えていた」と伝えられているところから、蜂蜜は甘味としてすでに存在していたことがわかる。一方、ニワトリの飼育も古代ローマ時代にはかなり進み、レグホン種が採卵の適種とされていた。これらの素材に香料や洋酒を加えることにより、洋菓子のなかでも、洋生(ようなま)といわれるケーキの原型が形成されていった。

 生菓子にはスポンジケーキ類、パイ、焼きりんご、シュークリーム、エクレア、プディング(プリン)、ババロア、ゼリー、マフィン、スフレ、ワッフル、ドーナツ、マシュマロ、マロングラッセ、スイートポテトなど。干菓子にはビスケット、クッキー、サブレー、クラッカー、キャンディー類、チョコレート、ウェファーなどが含まれる。また冷菓としてアイスクリーム、シャーベットがあり、特殊な干菓子にチューインガムがあげられる。

 シュークリームは、キャベツの形をした皮の中にカスタードクリーム(小麦粉、卵黄、砂糖、牛乳)を入れたものと、生クリームを入れたものとがある。エクレアの形は稲妻の走るさまを表現しているともいわれ、皮はシュークリームと同じものを棒状につくる。上にはビターチョコと粉砂糖を練ったチョコレートフォンダンをかける。中にはシュークリームと同様にカスタードクリームか生クリームを入れる。またシュークリームの形を小判型にし、イチゴの裏漉(うらご)しと粉砂糖を練った苺(いちご)フォンダンをかけ、その上にイチゴをのせればパリジェンヌになる。プディングは、砂糖、牛乳、卵を混ぜ、バニラエッセンスを加えて天火焼きまたは蒸したもので、カラメルソースのほろ苦い味とよくあった菓子である。南部ドイツのババリア(バイエルン)地方から名をとったババロアは、ゼラチン、牛乳、卵、生クリーム、砂糖、香料を材料としてつくる。冷たくして食べる菓子で、滑らかに溶けていく口ざわりのよさが喜ばれる。バニラエッセンスを使ったもののほかイチゴ、チョコレートのババロアもある。マフィンはパン菓子の一種で軽焼きパンといったもの。バターをつけて朝食や正式でないお茶の時間に用いられる。リンゴのジャムをのせたダンディ・アップル・マフィンやおろしチーズ、レーズンの入ったチーズ・マフィンがある。ワッフルもパン菓子の一種で、小麦粉にバター、砂糖、牛乳、卵、バニラエッセンスを混ぜ、滑らかに溶いて器に流し込み、焼き上げる。ジャム、バター、ベーコンなど好みのものを添えて食べるが、焼き上がったものを柏餅(かしわもち)のように二つ折りにし、中にカスタードクリームやジャムを入れると洋生菓子になる。スフレには「ふっくらした」の意味がある。食後の菓子の一つであるが、時間がたつとしぼんでしまうので温かいうちに味わう。牛乳と卵の味わいと香り、そのまろやかさが楽しめる焼き菓子で、好みにより粉砂糖をかけたり、バニラやレモンエッセンスの入ったクリームソースをかける。フランスのお焼きにクレープがある。小麦粉、砂糖、卵、牛乳を練り、裏漉ししてからバターを混ぜ、さらに塩、洋酒を加えてフライパンで薄く焼く。縮緬(ちりめん)(クレープ)のように焼き上げるのでこの名がある。この皮でジャムやマーマレードをくるむ。

 キャンディー類はソフト・キャンディーとハード・キャンディーに分けられる。ソフトにはキャラメル、ヌガー、ボンボンがあり、ハードにはドロップ、バター・スコッチ、タフィー、チャイナ・マーブルなどがある。

 和菓子では各種の餡が材料の主座を占めるように、洋菓子では小麦粉、牛乳、バター、卵が欠かせない。また寒天のかわりにゼラチンが使われ、柚(ゆず)の香りに相当するものにはレモン、バニラエッセンスがある。洋酒(ラム酒、ブランデー、キュラソー、ワイン)は風味を引き立て、レモンピールやオレンジピールなど、果実皮の砂糖漬けも彩りに使われる。

 洋菓子は西洋料理のデザートコースにも供されるが、多くはババロア、プディング、ゼリー、アイスクリームなどが使われる。またスポンジケーキにデコレーションを施したウェディングケーキやバースデーケーキ、クリスマスケーキなどは、いわば日本の式菓子に相当する。このほか、アメリカでは感謝祭(11月の第4木曜日)にカボチャのパイをつくり、ドイツではクリスマスケーキにバウムクーヘン(木目(もくめ)菓子)を焼くなど、行事にちなんだ菓子もある。

 これらヨーロッパ系の菓子類は、前述のように16世紀末に一部が南蛮菓子として伝来したが、きわめて日本風に消化して受容された。日本における本格的な欧風菓子の誕生は、明治維新をまたねばならなかった。なお、欧米各国の菓子については別項「洋菓子」参照。

[沢 史生]

明治維新後の菓子事情

1543年(天文12)8月、ポルトガル船が日本に鉄砲を伝えた。以来日本人は銃に象眼(ぞうがん)を施すなど実用品を美術品化させた。そうした日本人の性向は菓子のうえにもうかがえる。奈良時代に酪農製品と出会い、戦国時代に南蛮菓子の到来をみながら、やはり幕末までそれを普及させられなかった。そして、火縄銃を飾りたてたのと同様に、素朴な素材から芸術的なにおいの深い菓子をつくりだすことを志向したのである。幕末の黒船騒ぎで鎖国から開港、倒幕から明治新政府樹立というめまぐるしい動乱と変転のなかで、日本人は数世紀にもわたる文明の立ち後れを貪欲(どんよく)に取り戻そうと努力した。その変化は菓子作りのうえにも反映していったのである。まず幕末の先覚者、伊豆韮山(にらやま)の代官江川太郎左衛門は、安政(あんせい)年間(1854~1860)にパンを製造し、洋式訓練の糧食に用いた。開港後の1860年(万延1)には横浜本牧(ほんもく)で日本人のパン屋が開業、ついで1868年(慶応4)には凮月堂(ふうげつどう)の米津(よねづ)松蔵が、東北鎮撫(ちんぶ)軍の官兵5000人分のパンを納めた。木村屋(開店当時の店名は文英堂といった)が東京でパン屋を開店したのは1869年(明治2)であったが、当時はパンを「餡なし饅頭」とも称した。いわゆる餡パンが創製されたのは1874年のことである。それから10年後には食パン、菓子パン、餡パン、堅(かた)パンなどが出回っていた。福沢諭吉が牛乳の効能を説いたのは1870年のことであるが、1873年には北海道でバターと粉乳の試作が行われ、明治天皇も北海道で、アイスクリームを試食した。1875年には米津凮月堂がケーキを博覧会に出品し、続いて1878年にチョコレート、ビスケット、ドロップを、1892年にはマシュマロを発売している。1905年(明治38)中村屋がクリームパン、1909年森永製菓が板チョコを発売した。そして1914年(大正3)には森永が箱入りキャラメルを売り出し、1918年にはチューインガムが日本に輸入されている。しかしガムの売れ行きが急速に伸びたのは第二次世界大戦後のことである。

 洋菓子の需要は昭和初期にますます増え、森永製菓、明治製菓、新高(にいたか)製菓、不二家(ふじや)、オリンピック、富士アイス、ジャーマン・ベーカリー、モロゾフなどから多種の洋菓子が販売され、普及した。しかし1937年(昭和12)の日中戦争から太平洋戦争に突入した日本では、1942年ごろから菓子という菓子が店頭から姿を消した。そして1945年(昭和20)敗戦を経て、ようやくケーキが喫茶店に並び始めたのは1948年ごろからであった。

 和菓子も洋菓子と同様の運命を担ってきたわけであるが、それ以外にも若干の盛衰がみられる。敗戦後、日本的なクリスマスの空騒ぎとともにケーキ類が伸びたのに反し、和菓子の売れ行きは一時沈滞した。しかし旅行ブームがおこり、ついで日本人の心のふるさとを見直す雰囲気が醸成されるにつれ、郷土菓子が人気を集め、老舗(しにせ)の名菓や昔菓子となった駄菓子類なども返り咲いた。綿飴(わたあめ)やお好み焼きの復活もその一端といえる。

[沢 史生]

『石橋幸作著『駄菓子のふるさと』(1967・未来社)』『女子栄養大学出版部編・刊『だれでもつくれるお菓子200選』(1970)』

[参照項目] | 郷土菓子 | ちまき | 中国菓子 | 唐菓子 | まんじゅう | 洋菓子
秋田諸越
秋田県©Shogakukan">

秋田諸越

あくまき
鹿児島県©鹿児島市">

あくまき

甘納豆
手前左から時計回りに、小豆、白花豆、金時豆、鶯豆©Shogakukan">

甘納豆

有平糖
「ありへいとう」とも読み、アルヘル、アリヘイともいう©Shogakukan">

有平糖

ういろう
名古屋のういろう©一般社団法人愛知県観光協会">

ういろう

お焼き
小麦粉の皮で野菜餡を包んだお焼き。長野県©信州・長野県観光協会">

お焼き

カステラ
©Shogakukan">

カステラ

金花糖
©石川県観光連盟">

金花糖

金平糖
©Shogakukan">

金平糖

五家宝
埼玉県©熊谷市">

五家宝

しおがま
宮城県©宮城県観光課">

しおがま

タルト〈松山市〉
©公益財団法人松山観光コンベンション協会">

タルト〈松山市〉

朝鮮飴
熊本県©熊本県">

朝鮮飴

巻柿
徳島県©Shogakukan">

巻柿

丸柚餅子
石川県©Shogakukan">

丸柚餅子


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