Romanticism (English spelling)

Japanese: ロマン主義 - ろまんしゅぎ(英語表記)romanticism 英語
Romanticism (English spelling)

The term romanticism includes "eternal romanticism" that transcends time and place, and "historical romanticism" that is limited to a certain era. However, the former is merely a derivative concept of the latter, and more precisely, it refers to the latter, that is, the literary and artistic movement or phenomenon that arose in Western Europe in the late 18th century and spread throughout Europe and its cultural sphere, North and South America, by the mid-19th century. The adjectives romantic (English) and romantic (French), which form the word romanticism, originally come from the French word roman, which originally referred to vulgarized Latin and then to all works written in that language. As time went on, romance came to be used to refer to chivalric tales written first in verse and later in prose, and especially in England it came to be called romance. The word romantic first appeared in England in the mid-17th century, and was introduced to Germany and France at roughly the same time a little later, where it was used as an adjective to describe scenery and artworks that gave a novel and fantastical impression. However, from the late 18th century to the early 19th century, when calls for innovation in literature and the arts arose, the word became established as the opposite of "classical," referring to traditional culture.

[Kato Tamio]

Pre-Romantic period

Major European countries in the 18th century largely inherited the classicism established in 17th century France, but at the same time were dominated by the Enlightenment, which considered reason the only and supreme means of cognition. Classicism was based on the idea of ​​universal and absolute beauty, rejected everything that did not conform to common sense, established strict rules, and was an aristocratic culture that valued simplicity over complexity, stillness over movement, urbanity over rusticity, elegance over blatantness, and symmetry over irregularity. However, in the mid-18th century, with the relaxation of absolute monarchy and the rise of the bourgeoisie, there arose a desire to understand human beings as they really are, and on the other hand, as the Enlightenment itself discovered irrationality through reason, there was a growing trend to seek the truth of human nature in the various phenomena of the senses that had been neglected until then, and at the same time to turn from the classical antiquity of Greece and Latin, which classicism had taken as its model, to the past of one's own country, and to find the source of a new culture there. In England, Young and Gray sang of tales of night and graveyards, while the poems of Macpherson, which they claimed to be translations of the ancient Celtic bard Ossian, were popular. In France, Diderot and especially Rousseau made frank confessions of the inner world of individuals in conflict with natural emotions and society, and in Germany, Klopstock, Herder, a young Goethe, Schiller, and the writers of the Sturm und Drang movement rejected the culture that had been introduced from France and returned to their own country's history and legends, praising natural emotions and individual lyricism. Under Diderot's influence, theater was also renewed.

This climate of sensibility from the middle to the end of the 18th century is generally called pre-Romanticism, which can be said to be an awakening to the recognition of the uniqueness of the individual, both at the level of the individual and at the level of the nation, and an affirmation of the relativity that each person has their own value just as cultures differ according to the era and climate. Although it may sound paradoxical at first glance, it can be said to be the inevitable result of one aspect of the Enlightenment, which is based on experience. And it was the French Revolution that transformed this pre-Romanticism into the original Romanticism. This revolution of 1789 spread to various places through the Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, causing unprecedented political, social, and cultural upheaval throughout Europe. The greatest impact it had on people's minds was a deep sense of disillusionment. Many young people who initially supported the revolution were forced to fall into despair when they witnessed the greatest achievement of the Enlightenment, which was the overthrow of an irrational political system through reason, revealing the ugly side of humanity, such as the Reign of Terror. They were confused by the rapid changes around them, and the collapse of all principles instilled in them a distrust for everything. The essence of the Romantic spirit is to build a culture that corresponds to one's own mentality on the ruins of this spirit, and this begins above all with the confirmation of the ego as the only certain thing and immersion in it. Insisting that the truth lies within, the brothers Wilhelm and Friedrich Schlegel founded the magazine "Atheneum" in Jena, Germany in 1798, and in the same year in England, Wordsworth and Coleridge published "Lyric Songs," which sings of a sense of spiritual unity with the universe through the imagination while contemplating nature, and it was based on these circumstances that each became the pioneer of Romanticism in their own country and at the same time in Europe.

[Kato Tamio]

Romanticism in Western countries

Germany

Since Germany has always had a national character that favors metaphysical thinking, Romanticism was heavily influenced by Fichte's absolute idealism, which sees everything as the product of the ego, and Schelling's mystical natural philosophy, and it developed and crystallized the yearning for the absolute and infinite into a kind of philosophy, or rather an incomprehensible theory of poetry, centered on the concept of "romantic irony," which is both the artist's self-creation and self-transcendence. Novalis, Tieck, Brentano, Arnim, Kleist, Hölderlin, Jean Paul, and fantasy writers such as Eichendorff, Hoffmann, and Chamisso, as well as the young Heine, are counted among the Romantics.

[Kato Tamio]

England

In England, the country that gave birth to Shakespeare, imaginative literature blossomed naturally without any special movement or theorization, and Shelley and Keats expressed lyricism, idealism, and the denunciation of social injustice, which is one of the characteristics of Romanticism, in novel images, resulting in a pure poetic world, while Byron, who violently portrayed a soul tormented by anxiety and despair in rebellion against modern society, became the very embodiment of rebellious Romanticism, along with his way of life. Other Romantics include Scott, who pioneered historical novels set in the Middle Ages, the poets Blake and Burns, and prose writers such as Lamb, Hazlitt, and De Quincy.

[Kato Tamio]

France

In France, Madame de Stael advocated the importation of romantic literature from the north, and Chateaubriand, Sénancourt, and Constant seriously expressed the suffering of young people living in a post-revolutionary society. However, France was a stronghold of classicism, and it took about 20 years of struggle for the romanticism of Hugo, Bigny, Musset, Dumas, and Nerval, apart from Lamartine, to win. The struggle unfolded around the innovation of poetry, especially theater, and saw the birth of romantic drama, which sought to express the world in its entirety. Furthermore, artistic freedom was linked to political freedom, and after the July Revolution, the attitude of criticism of the bourgeois system was strengthened, leading to the birth of romantic socialism. It is noteworthy that, at the same time that historical novels became popular under the influence of Scott, the idea of ​​using this method to depict humans in relation to society was born, and in contrast to fantasy writers such as Nodier and Gautier, novelists who looked directly at reality, such as Stendhal, Balzac, and Mérimée, paved the way for later realism. This would also be true of Dickens in England.

[Kato Tamio]

Southern Europe

Romanticism also spread to southern Europe via France, and in Italy in particular it took on a strong political color as it was integrated with the movement for independence and national unification from Austria (Risorgimento), and rose to the point of establishing patriotic literature backed by liberalism and Christianity. Manzoni's historical novels were the pinnacle of this movement. Other examples include Brehme and Visconti, both based on the Milanese magazine Conciliatore, which was led by Pellico, and although Leopardi's style was classical, he can also be considered a pioneer of Romanticism due to the depth of his emotions.

[Kato Tamio]

Northern Europe

Romanticism in Northern Europe was stagnant in the Netherlands, but was generally active in the Scandinavian countries, and in Russia it gave birth to modern literature by producing Pushkin and Lermontov. Polish Romanticism, as represented by Mickiewicz, was politically colored with nationalism and patrioticism, as in Italy, as a direct reflection of the country's misfortune of being divided by the great powers and then ruled by Russia.

[Kato Tamio]

Americas

Finally, turning to the Americas, Romanticism was brought to South America by travelers and refugees from their respective colonial powers, and was characterized in particular by its attempt to correctly understand the indigenous Indians and portray their customs in Argentina and Brazil, but in the United States of America, it lacked established artistic principles to rebel against, and was hindered by Puritanism and a utilitarian spirit, which delayed its blossoming. However, in addition to Cooper's Scott-style novels and Emerson's transcendentalism, distinctive Romantic tendencies can be found in Irving, Longfellow, Hawthorne, Whitman, and Melville. Rather than being a Romantic, Poe was a poet of modernity (modernity) who preceded Baudelaire.

[Kato Tamio]

The essence of romanticism

Thus, it is not easy to clearly define the essence of Romanticism, which flourished in a variety of ways according to the circumstances of each country or ethnic group. In fact, it is even said that its greatest characteristic is its indefinability. However, the only thing that can be said for sure is that it is literature and art that emerged in the period of formation of Western civil society immediately after the French Revolution. This revolution elevated freedom and equality, overthrew irrational order, and elevated idealism that sought truth rooted in the deep realities of life. However, this idealism was soon confronted by inequality based on wealth, which replaced inequality based on birth. As a result, the ego, liberated yet suppressed, was infected with the "disease of the century," whose symptoms were anxiety, fatigue, idleness, and impatience, unless it rebelled against the utilitarian system by preaching the dignity of the spirit, or tried to establish an absolute realm in which it could fulfill itself beyond reality by infinitely activating its imagination. This is why Romanticism, along with its excessive emotionality and exaggerated expression, also had a transcendental or escapist character. Therefore, the core of Romanticism can be said to be the struggle of the individual spirit seeking freedom in the midst of the oppressive civil society that it created, and precisely because of this self-contradiction, this movement can serve as a sharp blade of criticism against modern civilization.

[Kato Tamio]

Japan

Japanese Romanticism was born against the backdrop of the transition from feudal society to modern civil society. It is therefore characterized by a radical desire for the establishment and expansion of the self and freedom of thought and emotion. It emerged as a rebellion against pre-modern Confucian ethics and feudal customs through the adoption of Western culture and Christian thought. It also emerged as resistance against Western rational thought and utilitarianism through a traditional aesthetic sense. Japanese Romanticism was established in the womb between these two opposing movements.

The forerunners of this movement were Mori Ogai's trilogy, including Maihime (1890), Kitamura Tokoku's critiques in Bungakukai (1893-98), and Shimazaki Toson's poetry. They advocated beauty and freedom, sought the liberation of humanity and the truth of emotions, and aimed to establish the self. Takayama Chogyu, who appeared in the late 1880s, then advocated the fulfillment and expansion of the self, providing a theoretical justification for romanticism.

Serious romanticism blossomed with the golden age of poetry in the 1890s. The mainstream was the "Myojo" (1900-08) by the husband and wife duo Yosano Tekkan and Akiko. They liked to sing about stars and violets and were called the "Star and Violet" school. The essence of this school was the liberation of the ego through unrestrained passion, the supremacy of love, and intoxication with a fantastical world of beauty. The romantic sentiment of Susukida Kyukin, Kambara Ariake, Irako Seihaku and others, who were in the vein of Fujimura's "Wakanashu" (1897), followed suit. The essence of Romanticism can be seen in novels by Izumi Kyoka, who wrote about fantasy and mystery, Kunikida Doppo, who yearned for the eternity of nature, Ogai's Impromptu Poet (1892-1901), and Tsunashima Ryosen's mystical religious writings. In the 1900s, this trend changed into one that valued exoticism and decadence. This trend is called neo-Romanticism or the aesthetic school.

[Kiyoshi Asai]

"The Spirit of Romanticism" by H.G. Schenck, translated by Ikumatsu Keizo and Tsukamoto Akiko (1975, Misuzu Shobo)""Albert Beguin Collected Works 1: The Romantic Soul and Dream" translated by Obama Toshiro and Goto Nobuyuki (1972, Kokubunsha)""Political Romanticism" by C. Schmidt, translated by Hashikawa Bunzo (1982, Miraisha)""Romantic Literature" by F.O. Schlegel, translated by Yamamoto Sadahiro (1980, Tomiyamabo Encyclopedia Library)""After the Revolution - The Spirit of Romanticism" by Kato Tamio (1981, Ozawa Shoten) " ▽ "Studies on Romanticism" by Yoshida Seiichi (1970, Tokyodo Publishing)""History of Romantic Literature in the Meiji Era" by Hinatsu Konosuke (1951, Chuokoron-Shinsha)""The Birth of Romantic Literature by Yuichi Sasabuchi (1958, Meiji Shoin)"

[References] | Classicism | Neo-Romanticism | Aestheticism

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

ロマン主義ということばには、時代や地域を超える「永遠のロマン主義」と、ある時代に限定される「歴史的ロマン主義」が含まれる。しかし、前者は後者の派生概念にすぎず、正確には、後者すなわち18世紀末葉に西欧に生じ19世紀中葉までほぼヨーロッパ全域およびその文化圏である南北アメリカに波及した、文芸・芸術運動ないし現象を意味する。ロマン主義という語のもとをなす形容詞ロマンチックromantic(英語)、romantique(フランス語)はもともと俗化したラテン語を、ついでその言語によって書かれたすべての作物をさしたフランス語のロマンromanに由来するが、時代が下るにしたがってロマンは初め韻文で、のちには散文でも書かれた騎士道物語に対して用いられ、とくにイギリスではロマンスromanceとよばれるようになった。ロマンチックの初出は17世紀中葉のイギリスであり、すこし後れてほぼ同時期にドイツ、フランスに入り、主として小説的で幻想的な印象を与える風物や芸術作品の形容詞に用いられていたが、やがて18世紀最末葉から19世紀初頭にかけて文学・芸術の革新が叫ばれるに及んで、伝統文化をよぶクラシックclassic(古典的)の対立語として定着するに至った。

[加藤民男]

プレ・ロマン主義の時代

18世紀の主要なヨーロッパ諸国は17世紀フランスに確立された古典主義をおおむね継承すると同時に、理性を認識の唯一至上の手段とする啓蒙(けいもう)主義に支配されていた。古典主義は普遍絶対的な美の観念に立脚し、すべて良識にあわぬものを退け、厳しい規則を設けて、複雑より簡明を、動より静を、土俗性より都会性を、露骨より優雅さを、破格より均斉を重視する貴族的文化であった。しかし18世紀も中ごろになると、絶対王政の弛緩(しかん)やブルジョアジーの勃興(ぼっこう)とともに人間をありのままにとらえようとする欲求が生じ、一方、啓蒙主義そのもののなかから理性による非合理の発見がなされると、それまで軽視されてきた感覚の諸現象に人間性の真実を探り、同時に古典主義が範としてきたギリシア・ラテンの古典古代から自国の過去へと目を転じて、そこに新たな文化の源泉をみようとする気運が高まってきた。イギリスではヤング、グレーらが夜や墓地を歌う一方、古ケルトの吟遊詩人オシアンの翻訳と称するマクファーソンの詩が流行し、フランスではディドロ、とりわけルソーが自然感情や社会と対立する個人の内面を赤裸に告白し、ドイツではクロプシュトック、ヘルダー、若い時代のゲーテ、シラー、それに「シュトゥルム・ウント・ドラング」の作家たちが、フランス伝来の文化を排して自国の歴史・伝説に立ち返るとともに、自然感情や個人の叙情性を称揚し、ディドロの影響を受けて演劇の刷新も行われた。

 18世紀中葉から末にかけてのこのような感性の風土を一般にプレ(前)・ロマン主義とよんでいるが、要するにそれは個人のレベルでも民族のレベルでも個の独自性の認識への目覚めといってよく、時代・風土に応じて文化が異なるように各人それぞれに独自の価値があるとする相対性の確認であって、一見逆説的に聞こえるが経験にたつ啓蒙主義の一側面から必然的に導出された結果ということができる。そしてこのプレ・ロマンチスムを本来のロマン主義に転化せしめたものがフランス革命であった。1789年のこの革命は革命戦争、ナポレオン戦争を通じて各地に波及し、ヨーロッパ全土に未曽有(みぞう)の政治・社会・文化的大混乱を引き起こした。人心に与えたその最たる影響は深甚な幻滅感であった。啓蒙主義の最高の成果として理性による非合理な政治体制の打破であったはずのものが、恐怖政治のような人間の醜悪面を露呈させるのを目の当たりにして、初めこの革命に賛同した多くの青年たちは絶望に陥らざるをえなかった。彼らは四囲のめまぐるしい変化にとまどい、あらゆる原理の崩壊をみていっさいに対する不信感を植え付けられた。この精神の廃墟(はいきょ)のうえに自らの心性に即した文化を築こうとするのがロマン主義精神の本質であり、それはなによりもまず唯一確かなものとしての自我の確認とその内部への沈潜に始まる。内面にこそ真実があると主張して、1798年ドイツのイエナでウィルヘルムとフリードリヒのシュレーゲル兄弟が『アテネーウム』誌を創刊し、同年にイギリスでワーズワースとコールリッジが自然の観照のうちに想像力によって宇宙との霊的合一感を歌う『叙情民謡集』を刊行して、それぞれ自国の、と同時にヨーロッパのロマン主義の嚆矢(こうし)となったのは、こうした事情に基づいている。

[加藤民男]

欧米諸国のロマン主義

ドイツ

ドイツはもともと形而上(けいじじょう)学的思考を好む国民性があるだけに、ロマン主義はいっさいを自我の所産とするフィヒテの絶対的観念論やシェリングの神秘的な自然哲学に大きく影響されながら深化し、芸術家の自己創出であるとともに自己超克でもある「ロマン的イロニー」の概念を中心に絶対・無限なるものへの憧憬(しょうけい)を難解な詩(ポエジー)理論、というより一種の哲学に結晶させた。ノバーリス、ティーク、ついでブレンターノ、アルニム、クライスト、ヘルダーリン、ジャン・パウル、それにアイヒェンドルフ、ホフマン、シャミッソーなどの幻想作家や若きハイネなどがロマン派に数えられる。

[加藤民男]

イギリス

イギリスではシェークスピアを生んだ国柄から想像力の文学は特別な運動も理論化もなく自然に開花し、シェリーとキーツにおいて叙情性と理想主義と、それにロマン主義の一性格たる社会不正の告発が斬新(ざんしん)なイメージに表現されて至純な詩世界を結実させ、バイロンは近代社会に反抗して不安と絶望にさいなまれる魂を激烈に描出してその生き方ともどもまさしく反逆的ロマン主義の化身となった。他のロマン派としては、中世を舞台とする歴史小説を開拓したスコット、ブレイクとバーンズの両詩人、ラム、ハズリット、ディ・クウィンシーなどの散文家がいる。

[加藤民男]

フランス

フランスでは早くスタール夫人が北方のロマン主義文学の移入を説き、シャトーブリアン、セナンクール、コンスタンによって革命後の社会に生きる青年の苦悩が深刻に表現されながら、古典主義の牙城(がじょう)であったために、ラマルチーヌは別にして、ユゴー、ビニー、ミュッセ、デュマ、ネルバルらのロマン主義が勝利を収めるには約20年にわたる闘争を必要とした。戦いは詩歌、とくに演劇の革新をめぐって展開され、世界を全的に表現しようとするロマン主義劇の成立をみた。さらに芸術の自由は政治の自由と結び付き、七月革命以後はブルジョア体制批判の姿勢を強めてロマン主義的社会主義を生み出すに至る。特筆すべきは、スコットの影響を受けて歴史小説が流行すると同時に、その手法で人間を社会との関連において描写する発想が生じ、ノディエ、ゴーチエらの幻想作家とは対照的にスタンダール、バルザック、メリメら現実を直視する小説家が、後の写実主義への道を切り開いたことである。これはイギリスのディケンズにもまた当てはまるであろう。

[加藤民男]

南ヨーロッパ

南ヨーロッパにもフランスを媒介にしてロマン主義は伝播(でんぱ)し、とくにイタリアではオーストリアからの独立・国家統一運動(リソルジメント)と一体となって強い政治色を帯び、自由主義とキリスト教に裏打ちされた愛国的文学の確立へと高揚した。マンゾーニの歴史小説はその頂点である。ほかにペッリコを中心とするミラノの『調停者(コンチリアトーレ)』誌に拠(よ)るブレーメ、ビスコンティなどがあげられるが、レオパルディも手法こそ古典的ではあるが、感情の深さによってロマン主義の先駆者と考えてよい。

[加藤民男]

北ヨーロッパ

北ヨーロッパのロマン主義はオランダでは低調であったが、スカンジナビア諸国において概して活発に展開され、ロシアではプーシキン、レールモントフを生み出すことによってこの国に近代文学の誕生をもたらした。ミツキェビッチに代表されるポーランドのロマン主義は、列強による国土分割、さらにはロシアの支配という悲運を直接に反映して、イタリアの場合同様、民族主義的で愛国的な政治色を帯びている。

[加藤民男]

南北アメリカ

最後に南北アメリカに目を転じると、南米ではそれぞれの宗主国からの旅行者や亡命者によってロマン主義がもたらされ、とりわけアルゼンチンとブラジルにおいては先住民インディオを正しく理解しその習俗を描出しようとしたところに特徴をもつが、北米のアメリカ合衆国では反逆すべき既成の芸術原理に欠けていたうえに、ピューリタニズムと功利精神に阻まれて開花が遅れた。しかしスコット流のクーパーの小説やエマソンの超絶主義のほかに、アービング、ロングフェロー、ホーソン、ホイットマン、メルビルらに独特のロマン主義的傾向を認めることができる。ポーはロマン主義的というより、むしろボードレールに先行する近代性(モデルニテ)の詩人である。

[加藤民男]

ロマン主義の本質

このように、それぞれの国ないし民族の事情に応じて多種多彩に花咲いたロマン主義の本質を、明確に定義することは容易ではない。むしろ定義しえぬところにその最大の特徴があるとさえいわれるほどである。しかし、ただ一つ確言できるのは、それがフランス革命直後の西欧の市民社会形成期に発生した文学・芸術であるという事実である。この革命は自由と平等を高く掲げて非合理な秩序を打破し、生の深い現実に根ざした真実を希求する理想主義を高揚させた。ところが、その理想主義がたちまち直面したのは、出生による不平等にとってかわった富による不平等であり、その結果、解放されながら抑圧された自我は、精神の尊厳をかざして功利主義的体制に反逆するのでなければ、いたずらに不安、倦怠(けんたい)、無為、焦燥を徴候とする「世紀病」に冒され、あるいは想像力を無限に発動させて現実のかなたに自己充足しうる絶対境を打ち立てようとした。ロマン主義に感情の過多や表現の誇張と同時に、超越ないし逃避的性格が生じたゆえんである。したがって、自ら生み出した抑圧的な市民社会の真っただなかで、なお自由を希求する個的精神の苦闘というのがロマン主義の根幹といってよく、まさしくその自己矛盾ゆえに、逆にこの運動は近代文明に対する鋭い批判の刃(やいば)になりうるのである。

[加藤民男]

日本

日本のロマン主義(浪漫主義)は、封建的社会から近代市民社会への転換期を背景に生まれた。それゆえ、自我の確立と拡充、思想と感情の自由を急進的に求めたところに特色をもつ。それは、西欧文化とキリスト教思想の受容による、前近代的な儒教倫理や封建的習俗への反逆となって現れた。また伝統的な美意識による、西欧的な合理思想・功利主義への抵抗となって現れた。この二つの相反する動きのはざまを母胎として、日本の浪漫主義は成立している。

 その先駆けは、森鴎外(おうがい)『舞姫(まいひめ)』(1890)などの三部作や、『文学界』(1893~98)に拠(よ)った北村透谷(とうこく)の評論、島崎藤村の詩である。彼らは美と自由を主張し、人間性の解放と主情的真実を探り、自我の確立を目ざした。ついで明治20年代末に登場した高山樗牛(ちょぎゅう)は自我の充足と拡大を唱え、浪漫主義の理論的裏づけを行った。

 本格的な浪漫主義は、明治30年代の詩歌全盛の時代とともに開花する。主流となったのは、与謝野鉄幹(よさのてっかん)・晶子(あきこ)夫妻を中心とする『明星(みょうじょう)』(1900~08)である。好んで星と菫(すみれ)を歌い星菫(せいきん)派と称された。その本質は、奔放な情熱による自我の解放と恋愛至上と空想的唯美の世界への陶酔にあった。藤村の『若菜集』(1897)の流れをくむ薄田泣菫(すすきだきゅうきん)、蒲原有明(かんばらありあけ)、伊良子清白(いらこせいはく)らの浪漫(ろうまん)的情緒がそれに続いた。小説では、幻想と神秘の泉鏡花(きょうか)、自然の永遠性を渇望する国木田独歩(どっぽ)、翻訳では、鴎外の『即興詩人』(1892~1901)、評論では綱島梁川(つなじまりょうせん)の神秘的宗教論などがその実質を形成している。このロマン主義の流れは、明治40年代に入って、異国情緒とデカダンスを重んじる傾向へと変質していく。この傾向を新ロマン主義とも、耽美(たんび)派とも称する。

[浅井 清]

『H・G・シェンク著、生松敬三・塚本明子訳『ロマン主義の精神』(1975・みすず書房)』『小浜俊郎・後藤信幸訳『アルベール・ベガン著作集1 ロマン的魂と夢』(1972・国文社)』『C・シュミット著、橋川文三訳『政治的ロマン主義』(1982・未来社)』『F・O・シュレーゲル著、山本定裕訳『ロマン派文学論』(1980・冨山房百科文庫)』『加藤民男著『大革命以後――ロマン主義の精神』(1981・小沢書店)』『吉田精一著『浪漫主義の研究』(1970・東京堂出版)』『日夏耿之介著『明治浪漫文学史』(1951・中央公論社)』『笹淵友一著『浪漫主義文学の誕生』(1958・明治書院)』

[参照項目] | 古典主義 | 新ロマン主義 | 耽美主義

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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