Handicraft - Craft

Japanese: 手工業 - しゅこうぎょう
Handicraft - Craft

The provision of labor that depends on the work of the hands, feet, and especially the hands, depending on the object to be processed and the purpose of the processing, and on the processing technique. Even when multiple people work together, the labor of each person tends to be independent. In modern labor, machines direct human labor in the form of power sources, motors, transmission systems, and working machines, but in handicrafts, human labor plays a leading role, and tools and equipment merely supplement it. In this sense, in contrast to the mass production phenomenon of machine labor, handicraft labor is concerned with quality.

Furthermore, not only the work of the hands and feet, but also the businesses run by such labor are called handicrafts in contrast to mechanized industries. The term handicrafts refers to the characteristics of labor corresponding to a certain level of technology, the businesses organized using that labor, and even the traditional industrial sectors that are the components of those businesses.

[Makoto Terao]

kinds

Due to the nature of the labor involved in handicrafts, their management is closely tied to the family of the producer. Management and household finances are not separated to a greater or lesser extent, but there are three types of handicrafts according to the degree of separation. (1) Sole proprietorship: This is the case when only the producer himself is involved in management, such as pottery or wood carving (including master crafts). (2) Family proprietorship: This is the case when the wife and children are involved in management, and the majority of the business is the production of everyday items. Skills are passed down from parents to children, and management tends to be hereditary. (3) Post-family proprietorship: This is the case when workers other than family members overwhelm family members, and the division of labor is organized similar to that of a mechanized factory. There are a variety of proprietorships, from fairly large to small family-run. Even today, there is furniture and locks produced primarily by hand.

Crafts differ from machine-made industries in terms of the workplace as well. They can be divided into three types based on the type of work they do. (1) No Workshop: Plasterers, carpenters, roofers, and other craftspeople go out to do work for clients. (2) Workplace attached to the family home: There are many crafts, including food crafts such as bakeries, butchers, and fishmongers, as well as tailors and cabinet makers. These are traditional and have little mobility. (3) Workshop Management: In large-scale craft management, the workplace is separate from the family home. When large quantities of goods are produced for the market, the irrationality of cottage industries is lessened, but they are not always rational.

[Makoto Terao]

history

Until the establishment of modern mechanical industries, processing industries were handicrafts. From the still mysterious prehistoric era, through the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic eras of stone tool making, to the Bronze and Iron Ages and the civilized era, handicrafts made technological advances. In the civilized era, handicrafts were linked to the full-scale development of agriculture in the production of farm tools called plows, and the two stimulated each other to actively influence nature in human society. From ancient times to the Middle Ages, it was the Germanic society north of the Alps that created a new combination of handicrafts and agriculture. While the traditional plows were simple plows without wheels, they produced complex wheeled plows, which led to a new period of prosperity for not only agriculture but also handicrafts. In the latter half of the Middle Ages, when medieval urban handicrafts in Western Europe were at their peak, rural handicrafts using water wheels arose, competing with the former and gradually overpowering it. This was workplace production through innovations in power and transmission devices. Handicrafts took a step towards mechanical industries. It was only when the agricultural revolution, which brought about the mechanization of agriculture, was combined with the industrial revolution, which brought about the invention of the steam engine, looms, and spinning machines, that it made a real leap forward. This only occurred in its pure form in England. From there, the wave of mechanical industries spread all over the world, and became the main player in the processing industry, but handicrafts did not go extinct, they just took a supporting role.

[Makoto Terao]

"The History of Technology, by R. J. Forbes, translated by Minoru Tanaka (1956, Iwanami Shoten)""Outline of General Social and Economic History, Vol. 1, by M. Weber, translated by Hideo Aoyama and Iwao Kuromasa (1954, Iwanami Shoten)"

[Reference] | Manufacture

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

加工する対象および加工の目的に従い、さらに加工の技術により手足、とくに手の作業に依存する労働の給付。複数の人間が共同で働いている場合でも、個々の人間の労働は個別的に独立する傾向をもつ。近代の労働が、動力源、動力機、伝導システム、作業機といった形で機械が人間の労働を方向づけてしまうのに対し、手工業においては人間の労働が主役で、道具や設備はそれをあくまで補う。この意味で機械労働の量産化現象に対し、手工業の労働は質を問題とする。

 さらに、こうした手足の作業だけではなく、そうした労働によって営まれる経営も、機械制工業と対比して、手工業とよばれる。技術水準に対応する労働の性格と、その労働を使って組織される経営、またそれらの経営を構成要素とする伝統的な産業部門までが、手工業のことばで理解される。

[寺尾 誠]

種類

手工業の労働の性格から、その経営は生産者の家族との結び付きが強い。経営と家計が多少の程度はあれ分離していないが、その程度に応じて3種類の手工業がある。(1)単独者経営 陶器や木彫などで、生産者個人しか経営にかかわらない場合(名人芸的なものを含む)。(2)家族経営 妻子が経営にかかわる場合で、大半の日常品の生産の経営。親から子供へと技術の継承が行われ、経営も世襲化する傾向がある。(3)脱家族経営 家族成員以外の労働者が、家族成員を圧倒していく場合で、機械制工場に似た分業を組織する経営。相当な巨大経営から零細な家族経営に近いものまである。現代でも手作業を主とする家具や錠前の生産がある。

 なお仕事場に関しても手工業は、機械工業とは違う。そのあり方から3種類に区分される。(1)仕事場のない場合 左官、大工、屋根葺(ふ)き工など、出向いていって注文者の所で仕事をする。(2)家族の住居と結び付いて仕事場をもつ場合 パン屋、肉屋、魚屋などの食料品手工業をはじめ、仕立屋、家具師など多くの手工業がある。伝統的で移動性に乏しい。(3)仕事場経営 大規模な手工業経営で、仕事場は、家族の住宅と分かれている。大量の品物を市場目当てにつくる場合には、家内工業の非合理性が薄れるが、いつでも合理的であるわけではない。

[寺尾 誠]

歴史

近代の機械工業が確立するまでの加工業は、手工業であった。いまだに謎(なぞ)に包まれた先史時代から、旧石器、中石器、新石器と石の道具製作の時代を経て、青銅器、鉄器と文明時代へと手工業は技術進歩を遂げていく。文明時代の手工業は、犂(すき)という農具製作において農業の本格的発達とつながり、互いに刺激しあって人間社会の自然への働きかけを能動的にした。古代から中世にかけて、手工業と農業の新しい結合を生み出したのは、アルプスの北側のゲルマン社会であった。従来の犂が単純な無輪犂であったのに対し、そこでは複雑な有輪犂が製作され、これにより農業はもちろん、手工業も新しい繁栄期を迎える。西欧中世の都市手工業が爛熟(らんじゅく)する中世後半に、水車を利用する農村手工業がおこり、前者と競合し、しだいに圧倒していく。それは、動力装置、伝導装置の革新による仕事場生産である。手工業は機械工業へと一歩踏み出した。それが本格的な飛躍となったのは、農業の機械化による農業革命と蒸気機関や織機、紡機の発明による産業革命が結び付いたときであった。それはイギリスにおいてのみ純粋な形でおこった。そこから機械工業の波が全世界に普及していき、加工業の主役となったが、手工業が絶滅したわけではなく、脇(わき)役に回っただけである。

[寺尾 誠]

『R・J・フォーブス著、田中実訳『技術の歴史』(1956・岩波書店)』『M・ウェーバー著、青山秀夫・黒正巌訳『一般社会経済史要論 上巻』(1954・岩波書店)』

[参照項目] | マニュファクチュア

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