It means that the structure or order of a society, or its components, change partially or completely, in the short term or long term, due to some internal or external circumstances. Because a social structure is merely a relative balance of mutually dependent and sometimes conflicting elements, it cannot remain absolutely unchanging, and any change that occurs in any part or element of it will spread to others and sooner or later cause change. Structure and change are like two sides of a shield, so to speak, and wherever there is structure, there is always change. [Akira Hamashima] Aspects of social changeIn modern societies that are complex and large, social change takes on a wide variety of aspects. This is due to the fact that the driving force behind change is not single but multiple, that various factors work in different directions rather than in a fixed direction, that there are various relationships between the various factors and between them and the overall social structure, and that the people who are responsible for change are subjectively affected by conditions that are difficult to predict and control. (1) Social change can be caused by external factors or internal factors. However, in today's world of intense international exchange, it is difficult to distinguish between internal and external factors. Examples of social change include opening up the country and restoration due to external pressure, cultural transformation due to contact with different cultures, upheaval due to war, regardless of whether the outcome was victorious, and revolution. (2) Changes can be partial and localized, or total and comprehensive. A revolution is the radical and total destruction of the existing order, while a reform is limited to partial and gradual correction within the framework of the existing order. Processes of change that are particularly noteworthy today include industrialization (advancing the mode of production based on technological progress), management = bureaucratization (enlarging and centralizing organizations), and urbanization (concentration of population in cities and the spread of urban lifestyles). It goes without saying that this series of processes constituted the mainstream of postwar social change and led to the formation of the modern highly industrialized society. However, these processes of change did not bring about a fundamental change in the social structure itself. (3) It cannot be denied that these rapid changes have thrown social life into chaos and given rise to problems in daily life and other pathological conditions. These include the worsening of environmental destruction and pollution accompanying rapid industrialization (high economic growth), deepening alienation due to control and bureaucratization, and the disintegration of communities that accompanies urbanization. [Akira Hamashima] Drivers of social changeWhat caused these diverse social changes? (1) Environmental determinists say that natural factors such as climate, topography, and natural resources cause social change, but this is a mistake. Natural conditions are merely passive factors that depend on the subjective attitude of humans. The same can be said about biological factors, which are the inner nature of humans. (2) In relation to this, there is a position that emphasizes population conditions. Durkheim argues that population volume and density bring about the division of labor and social development. It is true that population growth and concentration affect social change. Increases in life expectancy and the aging population make the problems of an aging society more urgent. However, it is changes in social conditions such as industrial development and rising standards of living that cause population increases and decreases and fluctuations in the population structure, and it is more appropriate to regard demographic factors as dependent variables. (3) A. Comte, the father of sociology, once believed that social progress was due to the progress of human intelligence, and M. Weber argued that the religious ethics of Protestantism brought about a rational attitude to life such as that seen in the spirit of capitalism. It cannot be denied that ideological factors such as intelligence, ideals, ethics, and ethos show people goals and act as subjective factors that drive people from within and change history, but they do not act as change factors by themselves. People with certain external and internal interests need to resonate with them and be directed toward them. (4) There is a theory (Ogburn) that material culture (especially technology and its inventions) plays a leading role in changing society. The tempo of change due to inventions is faster in material culture than in spiritual culture or institutional culture, which creates a cultural gap, and the lagging non-material culture changes in a way that follows the material culture. However, it is important to note that the development of technology (productive forces) does not take place in a vacuum, but is premised on and takes place within certain production relations. (5) Finally, according to the materialist view of history, the ultimate driving force behind social change is the contradiction between productive forces and the relations of production. In the process of the rise in productive forces, the relations of production that once promoted the development of productive forces become a shackle, and eventually, through revolution, the collapse of not only the foundation but also the superstructure that stands on it, and the development to a higher level becomes inevitable. Of course, social change is not caused by a single factor (such as the development of productive forces), but is brought about by the various factors listed above at the same time. [Akira Hamashima] Patterns of social changeSocial change, when viewed over the long term, has a certain direction and goes through several stages. This is called the pattern of change, which can be broadly divided into cyclical theory and stage theory. (1) Cyclical theory does not acknowledge social development, but asserts that history repeats itself and there is a cyclical repetition (Pareto’s theory of the peripatetic flow of elites). (2) In contrast, there is the view that the process of social change follows the direction of progress or evolution. The position of social progress originates from the French Enlightenment, while the position of social evolution is an application of Darwin's theory of biological evolution. Comte argued that just as the human mind progresses from theological to metaphysical to empirical, society also progresses from military to legal to industrial (the "Law of Three Stages"). H. Spencer's diagram of the gradual evolution from a military society to an industrial society borrows the law of biological evolution, from indefinite homogeneity to definite heterogeneity. (3) Furthermore, there is Tönnies' famous theory of stages from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft. Although this explains the change in the mode of human association (social relations), it is insufficient as an explanation of the mode of change in society because it does not relate to the underlying real factors. (4) The developmental scheme of the materialist view of history is based on the law of contradiction and correspondence between productive forces and production relations, and formulates the stages of development of social entities as follows: primitive communist society → ancient slave society → medieval feudal society → modern capitalist society → socialist society. However, these stages of development are in a necessary succession, and history should not be interpreted as necessarily passing through these stages. In reality, there are various courses of development. (5) Modernization theory (especially the theory of industrialization, which is the actual process of modernization) is fundamentally opposed to this materialist view of history. Rostow's theory of stages of economic growth is a representative example, and he distinguishes between five stages: traditional society → antecedent conditions → take-off → progress to maturity → advanced mass consumption. He argued that the last stage characterizes advanced industrial society regardless of the social system, and proposed the theory of convergence. [Akira Hamashima] "Theory of Social Change" by Kenichi Tominaga (1965, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Sociology Lecture Series 8: Social Systems and Social Change" edited by Naoyuki Fukutake et al. (1958, University of Tokyo Press)" ▽ "Stages of Economic Growth: Revised Edition" by W.W. Rostow, translated by Kenichi Kimura et al. (1974, Diamond Publishing)" [References] | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
ある社会の構造なり秩序、あるいはその構成要素が、なんらかの内部的または外部的事情によって、部分的にか全体的に、また短期的にか長期的に変化することを意味する。社会構造は互いに依存しあい、ときに対立する諸要素の相対的な均衡にすぎないから、絶対不変ではありえず、そのどの部分、どの要素におこった変化も他に波及し、早晩、変動を引き起こす。構造と変動はいわば盾の両面であり、構造のあるところかならず変動がある、といってよい。 [濱嶋 朗] 社会変動の諸相現代のように社会が複雑かつ巨大になると、社会変動も甚だ多種多様な様相を帯びてくる。その原因としては、変動の動因が単一ではなく複数であること、さまざまな要因が一定方向にではなく異なった方向に働くこと、諸要因の間やそれらと社会構造全体との間にさまざまな関連があること、変動を担う人間の側に予測し統制しにくい主体的条件が作用していること、などによる。 (1)社会変動は外部的要因によることもあれば、内部的要因によることもある。ただし、国際的交流の激しい現代では、内部的か外部的かの区別はつけにくい。外圧による開国と維新、異文化との接触による文化変容、勝敗の別はあれ戦争による激変、革命などがここに含まれる。 (2)変動は部分的・局部的なこともあれば、全体的・全面的なこともある。革命は既成秩序のラディカルな全面破壊であるが、改革は既成秩序の枠内での部分的・漸進的修正の域を出ない。今日とくに注目される変動過程としては、産業化(技術進歩に基づく生産様式の高度化)、管理化=官僚制化(組織の巨大化・集権化)、都市化(人口の都市集中、都市的生活様式の浸透)などがあげられよう。これらの一連の過程が戦後の社会変動の主流をなし、現代の高度産業社会を形成したことはいうまでもない。ただし、それらの変動過程によって社会構造そのものの基本的変化はおこらなかった。 (3)これらの急激な変動過程が、社会生活を混乱に陥れ、生活問題その他の病理的事態を生じていることも否定できない。急激な産業化(高度経済成長)に伴う環境破壊・公害の深刻化、管理化=官僚制化による疎外の深化、都市化に付随する地域の解体などがそこに含まれる。 [濱嶋 朗] 社会変動の動因以上のような多様な社会変動は何が原因でおこったのだろうか。 (1)環境決定論者によると、気候、風土、天然資源などの自然的動因が社会変動を引き起こすというが、これは誤りであって、自然的条件は人間の主体的なあり方に依存する受動的要因であるにすぎない。人間の内なる自然である生物学的要因についても、これとほぼ同様のことがいえる。 (2)これに関連して、人口条件を重視する立場がある。デュルケームは、人口の量と密度が分業や社会の発達をもたらすという。確かに人口の増大や集中が社会の変動に影響するのは事実である。平均余命の伸びや老齢化が高齢化社会の諸問題を切迫したものにしている。しかし、産業の発達、生活水準の上昇などといった社会的諸条件の変化が人口の増減、人口構成に変動を生じさせるのであって、人口的要因はむしろ従属変数とみなすほうが妥当である。 (3)社会学の祖A・コントはかつて社会の進歩は人間知性の進歩によるものとみ、M・ウェーバーはプロテスタンティズムの宗教倫理が資本主義精神にみられるような合理的生活態度をもたらしたと主張した。知性や理念、倫理やエートスといった観念的因子が、人間に目標を示し、人間を内側から突き動かして歴史を変革する主体的要因として働くことは否定できないが、それだけでは変革要因として働かない。一定の外的・内的利害状況にある人々がそれに共鳴し、方向づけられる必要がある。 (4)物質文化(とくに技術とその発明)が社会を変えるうえで主導的な役割を果たすとする説がある(オグバーン)。発明による変動テンポは精神文化や制度的文化よりも物質文化のほうが速く、そこに文化のずれを生じ、遅れた非物質文化は物質文化に追随する形で変化する、というわけである。しかし、技術(生産力)の発達は真空のなかで行われるのでなく、一定の生産関係を前提とし、そのなかで行われることに注意したい。 (5)最後に、唯物史観によると、社会変動の究極の動因は生産力と生産関係との矛盾にあるという。生産力が上昇する過程で、かつては生産力の発達を促していた生産関係がかえってその桎梏(しっこく)となり、やがて革命を通じ、土台ばかりでなく、その上にたつ上部構造を含めた社会構成体の崩壊と、より高次の水準への発達を避けがたくする、と主張される。もちろん、社会変動は単一の要因(たとえば生産力の発達)によって引き起こされるのではなく、同時に以上にあげた種々の要因によってもたらされる。 [濱嶋 朗] 社会変動の様式社会の変動は、長期的にみると、一定の方向をもち、いくつかの段階をたどる。これを変動の様式というが、循環論と段階論に大別される。 (1)循環論は社会の発展を認めず、歴史は繰り返すとして、循環的反復を主張する(パレートのエリート周流論)。 (2)これに対し、社会変動の過程は進歩または進化の方向をたどる、とする考えがある。社会進歩の立場はフランス啓蒙(けいもう)思想に由来し、社会進化の立場はダーウィンの生物進化論の適用による。コントは、人間精神が神学的→形而上学的→実証的という進歩の過程をたどるように、社会も軍事的→法律的→産業的という進歩の過程をたどると主張した(「三段階の法則」)。H・スペンサーによる軍事型社会から産業型社会への段階的進化の図式は、不確定的な同質性から確定的な異質性へという生物進化の法則を借用したものである。 (3)なお、ゲマインシャフトからゲゼルシャフトへというテンニエスの有名な段階論があげられる。これは人間の結合様式(社会関係)の変動を説いたものではあるが、その基底にある現実的諸要因と関連づけていないため、社会の変動様式の説明としては不十分である。 (4)唯物史観の発展図式は、生産力と生産関係との矛盾・照応の法則を基軸に、社会構成体の発展段階を原始共産制社会→古代奴隷制社会→中世封建制社会→近代資本主義社会→社会主義社会というように定式化した。ただし、この発展段階は必然的な継起の関係であって、歴史はかならずこの段階を通過するというように解釈すべきではない。現実には多様な発展のコースがあるからである。 (5)この唯物史観に原理的に対立するのが近代化論(とくにその実質的過程をなす産業化論)である。ロストウの経済成長段階説はその代表例であって、伝統的社会→先行条件期→離陸期→成熟への前進期→高度大衆消費時代という5段階を区別し、最後の段階は社会体制のいかんを問わず先進産業社会を特徴づけるものと主張し、収斂(しゅうれん)理論を提唱した。 [濱嶋 朗] 『富永健一著『社会変動の理論』(1965・岩波書店)』▽『福武直他編『講座社会学8 社会体制と社会変動』(1958・東京大学出版会)』▽『W・W・ロストウ著、木村健康他訳『増補 経済成長の諸段階』(1974・ダイヤモンド社)』 [参照項目] | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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