Industry - Sangyō (English spelling) industry

Japanese: 産業 - さんぎょう（英語表記）industry

It is the unit of economic activity that produces goods (physical goods) and services, and is the productive activity that people engage in to maintain their livelihood. It includes all economic activities carried out as a social division of labor, such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, manufacturing, public utilities, transportation, communications, warehousing, construction, commerce, finance, insurance, real estate, and other service industries.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

history

Humans create history by maintaining their own lives and by maintaining and expanding (breeding) their groups. The basis of this is that humans work with a specific purpose (human labor), using various tools, machines, and other means of labor on nature, which is the object of their labor, to produce material goods that are useful for their lives. The production method formed by the combination of human labor and means of labor has gradually advanced and developed over a long period of time. When the means of labor were based on stone tools and wood, humans had to move around a certain living space, collect products and materials such as birds, animals, fish, shellfish, plants, trees, and stones that existed in nature, and cook and process them to secure food, clothing, and shelter (mobile hunter-gatherer economy). When humans moved to a settled life in places with favorable natural conditions (sedentary hunter-gatherer economy), human groups with different natural conditions (ecosystems) exchanged the goods they had collected. When agriculture began and livestock farming began, human groups became more settled, and human groups with a unique lifestyle of nomadic pastoralism were born as an extension of livestock farming. The transition from the stage of gathering food to the stage of cultivating it dramatically improved the stability of human life (the food production revolution). Handicraft production, centered on the processing of production tools, also developed along with the use of mineral resources (copper, bronze, and iron), and the differentiation of agriculture, industry, and commerce began in earnest, based on the exchange and trade of animal foods, plant foods, and handicraft raw materials and products. The development of this division of labor and the development of transportation and transport methods promoted the diversification of industrial activity and played a role in improving the quality of human life. The birth of urban civilization 5,000 years ago (the urban revolution), which was the culmination of this process, also marked the establishment of a full-fledged class society within human groups.

Industrial activity showed rapid development with the start of mechanized industrial production and the shift in power sources. The start of mechanized production in the cotton industry in the second half of the 18th century prompted the development of steam engines as a power source to replace human, animal, and water power, and established a factory system equipped with a series of mechanical devices such as power, transmission, and working machines. With the appearance of cheap mass-produced goods, the driving force of economic development shifted from agriculture to industry, and the development of the mechanical industry led to the rapid development of the steel industry as a material sector, the coal industry as an energy sector, and railroads and ships as means of transportation, as well as their manufacturing industries (the Industrial Revolution). The development of material production, which is the core of industrial activity, expanded material distribution and expanded the network of a wide-ranging division of labor to other related industries and service industries, revitalizing industrial activity as a whole and becoming the driving force of economic development.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

Industry Analytics

The development of industrial activity can be considered from the perspective of (1) quantitative expansion, such as an increase in production levels, and (2) changes in industrial composition or structure. With regard to (1), because the development of production activity is manifested primarily as an increase in physical production, statistics such as the industrial activity index, the mining and manufacturing production index, and the labor productivity index, as well as industrial statistics tables, statistics on the dynamics of individual industries, inventory statistics, production capacity indexes and capacity utilization indexes, and statistics on various indicators of corporate management, can be used.

The development of industrial activity changes the weight of various industries in the overall industry and the combination of these industries (industrial structure). When investigating changes in industrial structure or comparing it with the industrial structure of other countries, an industrial classification created based on certain standards is necessary. In Japan, we have the "Japan Standard Industrial Classification," which is based on the United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification and takes into account the characteristics of Japan's economy and industrial structure, and new industrial classifications are created and integrated in response to changes in industrial structure and the emergence of new industries. In addition to this, various classifications are used depending on the purpose of the analysis of industrial structure.

The three major classifications made by British economist C. Clark are used to look at changes in industrial structure over time and to make cross-sectional comparisons with industrial structures in other countries. He divided the entire industry into primary industry (agriculture, forestry, fisheries, livestock and hunting), secondary industry (mining, manufacturing, construction, electricity, gas, and water), and tertiary industry (commerce, finance and insurance, transportation and communications, public service, domestic work, and other services), and statistically demonstrated that there is a historical trend of the labor force and income shifting from primary to secondary industry and then from secondary to tertiary industry as the national economy develops. The secondary industry is susceptible to economic fluctuations, and has been sluggish, especially due to the shift to rationalization and downsizing following the first oil crisis.

W. Hoffmann, who limited his analysis of industrial structure to the manufacturing sector and divided goods into investment goods industries, which produce means of production, and consumer goods industries, which produce goods for consumption, based on the use of goods, discovered the "Hoffmann Law," which states that the "Hoffmann ratio" (the ratio of added value and number of employees in the consumer goods industry to the investment goods industry) declines as the economy develops. Recently, this law has been used to calculate the heavy chemical industry ratio (the proportion of added value in the manufacturing industry that is accounted for by heavy chemical industries) by replacing the consumer goods industry with light industry and the investment goods industry with heavy chemical industries, based on the amount of equipment investment per worker (capital equipment ratio). Other methods include dividing industries into materials industries, which produce resources and materials for production, processing industries, which process materials to produce individual items and parts, and assembly industries, which use parts and materials to produce finished products, by focusing on the degree of processing in the production process, and dividing industries into capital-intensive industries, which have a high capital equipment ratio, and labor-intensive industries, which have a low capital equipment ratio and a high degree of labor integration, by focusing on the degree of processing in the production process.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

Current state of the industry

If we apply these classification methods to the development of Japan's industrial structure, the leading industries that rapidly promoted the sophistication of the industrial structure were heavy and chemical industries such as the iron and steel, electrical machinery and automobile industries, and between 1955 and 1960, there was a shift in the leading industries (a shift from light industry to heavy industry). Active technology introduction and large-scale capital investment rapidly increased the rate of heavy and chemical industrialization, and in the manufacturing industry, it became possible to improve labor productivity and reduce production costs, especially in capital-intensive industries, strengthening international competitiveness and causing a remarkable increase in the heavy and chemical industrialization of exports. At the same time, new issues were raised by resources, energy, prices, pollution and trade friction. In the 1970s, the oil crisis dealt a blow to the energy-intensive materials industry, forcing it to move to downsizing. However, in the machinery industry, which was relatively labor-intensive within the heavy chemical industry, progress in automation, ME (microelectronics) and the introduction of robots led to labor-saving and labor-saving measures, and the growth in the production and export of machinery, a highly processed product, has revitalized the assembly industry (excluding shipbuilding). Highly processed industries are also high-added-value industries, and will likely continue to occupy the core of the knowledge-intensive industrial structure in the future. The excess labor force created by downsizing and labor-saving measures was absorbed into the labor-intensive service industry (tertiary industry), and there was no impact on the unemployment rate.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the oil crisis triggered a rapid technological revolution that led to the development of the semiconductor and computer industries, the emergence of new materials such as fine chemicals and fine ceramics, and biotechnology, as well as the prospect of practical use of superconductors, all of which encouraged the birth of new industries that go beyond traditional industrial classifications. From the traditional primary and secondary industries, the fields of primary, secondary, and quintic industries that are intensive in research, development, technology, and knowledge are expanding. The diverse possibilities of brewing, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, fisheries, and livestock farming through the use of biotechnology, as well as the shift to office automation (OA) and factory automation (FA), have led to the diversification of production and consumption, changing employment and labor patterns and affecting the social structure. In addition, with the advancement of information technology, the tertiary industry is also rapidly changing. In the information age, information services (software, databases, market research, etc.), management, medical care - health, lifestyle-related, education, welfare, and other service industries have high future prospects. In the commercial and distribution industry, the number of small wholesale and retail businesses is declining, but drastic changes are inevitable, such as diversification of consumer tastes, competition between large and small stores related to town development, an increase in imported goods and the entry of foreign capital (internationalization), more efficient logistics, use of POS (point of sale) at convenience stores and other places, the introduction of cards and electronic money, and the use of the Internet. The same can be said about the deregulation of finance, insurance, and securities (Big Bang). In addition, transportation innovations such as automobiles and aviation replacing railroads and ships, and linear motor cars, the tourism industry, leasing, and other corporate and consumer-related service industries are greatly expanding the possibilities for new industries that should be called the tertiary and quintic industries (some people call it the quaternary industry).

[Shinichi Tonomura]

"New Edition of Japanese Industry Theory, eds. Miyashita Buhei and Takeuchi Hiroshi (1982, Yuhikaku)" ▽ "How to Read Economic Data, by Suzuki Masatoshi (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "Conditions of Economic Progress, by C. Clark, translated by Okawa Kazushi and others (1955, Keiso Shobo)" ▽ "The Stages of Modern Industrial Development, by W. Hoffman, translated by Nagasu Kazuji and Toyama Kazuo (1967, Nippon Hyoronsha)" ▽ "Japanese Economy Reader, eds. Kanamori Hisao and Kosai Yasushi (1982, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)" ▽ "Japanese Industry Reader (4th edition), eds., Industrial Research Department, Industrial Bank of Japan (1984, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)" ▽ "Japanese Industry Reader (7th edition), eds., Industrial Research Department, Industrial Bank of Japan (1997, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)" ▽ "Current State of Industry in Japan" edited by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry Secretariat Research and Statistics Department (1997, Ministry of International Trade and Industry Research Institute Publishing Division)" ▽ "Illustrated Guide to the Japanese Economy (2nd Edition)" by Isamu Miyazaki (Iwanami Shinsho)

[Reference items] | Industrial structure | Industrial policy | Standard industrial classification

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

モノ（物的財貨）やサービスを生産する経済活動の単位であり、人々が生計を維持するために従事する生産的活動のことである。農林漁業、鉱業、製造業、公益事業、運輸・通信・倉庫業、建設業、商業、金融・保険・不動産業、その他のサービス業など、社会的分業として遂行されるいっさいの経済活動を含む。

［殿村晋一］

歴史

人間は自己の生命を維持し、その集団を維持・拡大（繁殖）することによって歴史をつくりだしていく。その基礎となるのは、人間が特定の目的意識を有する労働（人間的労働）によって、その労働対象である自然に対して、各種の道具や機械など労働手段をもって働きかけ、その生活に有用な物的財貨を生産することである。人間労働と労働手段の組合せによって形成される生産方法は、長期にわたってしだいに前進、発展してきた。労働手段が石器、木器などに依拠していた段階では、人間は、一定の生活空間を移動しながら、自然に存在する鳥獣魚貝草木石などの産物や素材を採集し、それを調理・加工することによって衣食住を確保しなければならなかった（移動狩猟採集経済）。人間が自然条件に恵まれた所で定住生活（定住狩猟採集経済）に移ると、自然条件（生態系）の差異を有する人間集団の間で採取した物資の交換が行われる。農耕が始まり、家畜の牧養が始まると、人間集団の定住性が高まり、牧畜の延長上に遊牧という特殊な生活様式を有する人間集団が誕生する。食糧の採取段階から育成段階への移行は、人間生活の安定度を急激に向上させた（食糧生産革命）。生産用具の加工を中心とする手工業生産も、鉱物資源の利用（銅、青銅、そして鉄）とともに発展し、動物性食糧、植物性食糧、手工業原料・製品の交換・交易を基盤に、農業、工業、商業の分化が本格化した。この分業関係の発展と交通・運輸手段の開発は、産業活動の多様化を促進し、人間の生活内容を高める役割を果たした。その集約的到達点としてのいまから5000年前の都市文明の誕生（都市革命）は、人間集団における本格的な階級社会の成立でもあった。

　産業活動が急激な発展をみせるのは、機械による工業生産の開始と動力源の転換である。18世紀後半の綿工業における機械制生産の開始は、人力、畜力、水力にかわる動力源としての蒸気機関の開発を促し、動力、伝動機、作業機という一連の機械装置を備えた工場制度を確立させた。大量生産される安価な商品の登場によって、経済発展の原動力は農業から工業に移行し、機械工業の発展はその素材部門としての鉄鋼産業、エネルギー部門としての石炭産業、輸送手段としての鉄道・船舶とその製造業を急激に発展させることとなった（産業革命）。産業活動の中軸をなす物的生産の発展は、物的流通を拡大し、その他の関連産業やサービス業に多岐にわたる分業体系のネットワークを押し広げ、産業活動全体を活性化させ、経済発展の原動力となった。

［殿村晋一］

産業分析

産業活動の発展は、(1)その生産水準の上昇など量的拡大の側面と、(2)産業構成あるいは産業構造の変化という側面から考察することができる。(1)に関していえば、生産活動の発展がなによりも物的生産の増大となって現れるので、産業活動指数、鉱工業生産指数、労働生産性指数などの統計や、工業統計表や個別業種の動態統計、在庫統計、生産能力指数および稼動率指数、企業経営の諸指標に関する統計などが利用できる。

　産業活動の発展は、産業全体における各種産業の比重やそれら産業間の組合せ（産業構造）を変化させる。産業構造の変化を調べたり、外国の産業構造と比較する場合、一定の基準に基づいて作成された産業分類が必要であるが、わが国では、国連の国際標準産業分類を基準にして、日本の経済と産業構造の特質を加味して作成される「日本標準産業分類」があり、産業構造の変化や新産業の出現に応じて、産業分類の新設や統合が行われている。このほか、産業構造の分析目的に応じて、いろいろな分類が行われる。

　産業構造の変化を時系列でみたり、外国の産業構造との横断的比較のために利用されるのが、イギリスの経済学者C・クラークによって行われた三大分類である。彼は、産業全体を第一次産業（農林・水産、牧畜狩猟業）、第二次産業（鉱業、製造業、建設業、電気・ガス・水道業）、第三次産業（商業、金融・保険、運輸・通信、公務、家事使用人労働、その他サービス業）に分け、国民経済の発展につれて、労働人口と所得の比重が第一次産業から第二次産業へ、さらに第二次産業から第三次産業に移動するという歴史的な傾向があることを統計的に立証した。第二次産業は景気変動を受けやすく、とくに第一次オイル・ショック以後の合理化、減量経営への移行のため伸び悩んでいる。

　産業構造の分析を工業部門だけに限定し、商品の用途面から、生産手段を生産する投資財産業、消費にあてられる財を生産する消費財産業に区分したW・ホフマンは、経済の発展につれて「ホフマン比率」（消費財産業の投資財産業に対する付加価値額および従業者数比率）が低下するという「ホフマンの法則」を発見したが、最近では、労働者1人当りの設備投資額（資本装備率）を基準に、消費財産業を軽工業、投資財産業を重化学工業に置き換えて、重化学工業比率（製造工業の付加価値における重化学工業の占める割合）を算出するのに利用されている。このほか、生産過程における加工度の違いに注目して、生産のための資源や材料を生産する素材産業、材料を加工して単品や部品などを生産する加工産業、部品や材料を用いて完成品を生産する組立て産業に区分する方法とか、生産要素の結合ぐあいの違いに注目し、資本装備率の高い資本集約型産業、それが低く労働との結合度が高い労働集約型産業に区分する方法もある。

［殿村晋一］

産業の現状

これらの分類方法を日本の産業構造の展開に当てはめてみると、産業構造の高度化を一気に推進した主導産業は鉄鋼産業、電機機械産業、自動車産業などの重化学工業であり、1955年（昭和30）から60年にかけて主導産業の交替（軽工業から重工業への転換）が行われた。積極的な技術導入と大型設備投資が重化学工業化率を急速に高め、製造業では資本集約型産業を中心に労働生産性の向上と生産コストの引下げが可能となり、国際競争力が強化され、輸出の重化学工業化が著しい高まりをみせた。同時に、資源、エネルギー、物価、公害、貿易摩擦が新たな問題を提起した。70年代に入ると、オイル・ショックがエネルギー多消費型の素材産業に打撃を与え、素材産業は減量経営への移行を余儀なくされたが、重化学工業のうち比較的労働集約度の高かった機械工業部門では、オートメーション化とME（マイクロエレクトロニクス）化やロボット導入の進展によって省人化・省力化が進み、高加工度製品である機械類の生産と輸出の伸びが組立て産業（造船を除く）を活性化させている。高加工度産業は高付加価値産業でもあり、今後とも、知識集約型産業構造の中核を占め続けるであろう。減量経営と省人化によって過剰となった労働人口は、労働集約的なサービス産業（第三次産業）に吸収され、失業率への影響はみられなかった。

　1980～90年代、オイル・ショックを契機に急激な展開をみせた技術革新による半導体・コンピュータ産業の展開や、ファイン・ケミカル、ファイン・セラミックスなど新素材およびバイオテクノロジーの登場、超伝導体実用化の予想などは、従来の産業分類からはみだす新産業の族生を促しており、伝統的な第一次・二次産業のなかから研究開発・技術・知識集約的な第一・五次、第二・五次産業的分野が拡大している。バイオテクノロジー活用による醸造・薬品・農業・水産・畜産などでの多様な可能性、OA（オフィスオートメーション）化、FA（ファクトリーオートメーション）化などは生産と消費の多様化を生み、雇用や労働形態を変化させ、社会構造にも影響を与えている。また情報化の進展とともに、第三次産業も急激に変貌(へんぼう)している。情報化時代の情報サービス業（ソフトウェア、データベース、市場調査など）、マネジメント・医療―健康・生活関連・教育・福祉などの諸サービス業は高い将来性を有している。商業―流通業の領域では零細企業が卸・小売りとも減少傾向にあるが、消費者嗜好(しこう)の多様化、町づくりと関連する大小店舗の競合、輸入商品の増加と外資系資本の参入（国際化）、物流の効率化、コンビニエンス・ストアほかでのPOS(ポス)（販売時点情報管理）の活用、カード利用や電子マネーの導入、インターネットの利用など、激変は避けられない。金融・保険・証券の規制緩和（ビッグ・バン）も同様である。また鉄道・船舶にかわる自動車・航空、さらにリニアモーターカーを望む交通革新、観光産業、リース業など企業・消費関連サービス業は、第三・五次産業（人によっては第四次産業）とでもよぶべき新規諸産業の可能性を大きく広げている。

［殿村晋一］

『宮下武平・竹内宏編『新版日本産業論』（1982・有斐閣）』▽『鈴木正俊著『経済データの読み方』（岩波新書）』▽『C・クラーク著、大川一司他訳『経済進歩の諸条件』（1955・勁草書房）』▽『W・ホフマン著、長洲一二・富山和夫訳『近代産業発展段階論』（1967・日本評論社）』▽『金森久雄・香西泰編『日本経済読本』（1982・東洋経済新報社）』▽『日本興業銀行産業調査部編『日本産業読本（第4版）』（1984・東洋経済新報社）』▽『日本興業銀行産業調査部編『日本産業読本（第7版）』（1997・東洋経済新報社）』▽『通商産業大臣官房調査統計部編『我が国産業の現状』（1997・通商産業調査会出版部）』▽『宮崎勇著『日本経済図説（第2版）』（岩波新書）』