Generally speaking, it means that the government sets economic goals to improve the lives of the people and plans to achieve them. In a laissez-faire capitalist economic system, households and companies each pursue their own private goals on the basis of private ownership, but in a so-called decentralized market economy, where these are adjusted by the price function of the market to achieve harmony between production and distribution throughout society, there is no economic plan. On the other hand, in a socialist economic system, the state controls production, distribution, and consumption from above, and it is a centralized planned economy. However, even in the capitalist economic system, the implementation of economic plans was rapidly developed from the 1930s onwards. As early as the 1920s, interest in planned economies had increased, stimulated by the emergence of the socialist state of the Soviet Union, and debates on economic calculation had also arisen. Then, when the Great Depression of 1929 occurred, the United States implemented the New Deal in 1932 to escape from this great depression. This was an economic plan that leveraged public investment to escape from the depression, and it was said to be an intervention by the state in the economy, an economic plan that modified capitalism and combined the private and public economies. Government-led economic planning then spread rapidly to other countries. Then, when World War II broke out, in order to effectively mobilize economic power for the war effort, each country inevitably formulated and implemented economic plans in a controlled manner to match the country's military policy. This unexpectedly provided an opportunity to master the techniques of economic planning. After World War II, major countries began to show the overall economic direction in order to ensure the stability of their people's lives. Under a capitalist system, if the market economy is left to its own devices, competition between similar and different sectors will intensify, leading to attempts to achieve oligopoly through price agreements and market allocation agreements between major companies. This will be detrimental to the national economy, and fair competition will be sought through antitrust laws and other means. If this economic model is not implemented in a planned manner, it will be detrimental to the national economy. In order to stabilize the lives of the people, the government has begun to implement national economic issues such as full employment, price stability, a vibrant economy, economic growth, an equilibrium balance of payments, a welfare society, environmental conservation, and housing in a planned manner. Furthermore, today, the development of economic theory necessary for national economic planning, the establishment of various statistics such as national economic accounts, and the development of computers have made it easier to implement economic plans. Economic plans vary in nature. They range from those that simply forecast the future and provide prospects or guidelines for the private economy, to those that adjust the activities of the government sector toward the planned goals and guide the private sector through fiscal and monetary policies, and even to those that involve some degree of authoritarian intervention. The issue of economic planning today is how to avoid recession and economic downturns and to improve growth, the environment, welfare, employment, etc. [Toyosaburo Sato and Yoshiharu Shimizu] Key points of economic planning in major postwar countriesFrance has implemented fairly full-scale economic planning, from the famous 1946 recovery plan (Monnet Plan) to several subsequent modernization plans. Although guideline plans are the norm, the government has nationalized electricity, railways, airlines, banks, and other sectors, and has come to control a significant portion of the country's total investment. Italy also has a high degree of state intervention, with unique state-held companies such as the famous ENI and IRI holding large shares in key industries. The UK also nationalized industry early on, and is a mixed economy that has been working on economic planning since the famous 1965 "Economic Plan," The National Plan. Other European countries also have their own distinctive economic plans, and economic planning is also active in developing countries in Asia and Africa. In Japan, major economic plans were made every time a cabinet changed after the war. I will introduce some examples. Although each plan pursued its own goal, they were guideline plans in nature. The first was the Income Doubling Plan of the Ikeda Hayato Cabinet in 1960 (Showa 35), 15 years after the postwar economic recovery. This was a plan to double national income over a 10-year period in order to improve the standard of living of the people. As Japan emerged from the difficult economic conditions of defeat, a joint public-private plan was long awaited to achieve economic independence for the country, and this plan responded to that need. Supported by the people's desire to work, the plan progressed smoothly and was actually achieved in 1967, earlier than the target. The people worked hard above all else to meet their necessities of life: food, clothing, and shelter. The second was the "New Economic and Social Development Plan" put forward by the Sato Eisaku Cabinet in the 1970s, which was a plan to improve not only the quantity but also the quality of people's lives. In particular, it aimed to improve housing construction and social insurance, but did not achieve sufficient results. The third was the "Basic Economic and Social Plan" by the Tanaka Kakuei Cabinet in 1973, which became famous as the "Plan for Remodeling the Japanese Archipelago." Its main axis was a hard plan that actively implemented public investment in the Shinkansen and expressway networks for national land development, and relocated factories to rural areas. It was a time when Japan's version of an automobile society was realized. On the one hand, heavy chemical industries developed and petrochemical complexes made great strides, but on the other hand, pollution and other issues increased dramatically. Therefore, during the implementation of this remodeling plan, there was an increase in income and employment, but at the same time, there was a noticeable rise in land prices, a rush to build urban housing, and a cluster of related companies. In addition, problems such as a shortage of schools, hospitals, and social insurance facilities due to the concentration of population in cities also came to the surface. The fourth was a plan on how to respond to the important issues of the 1980s: "internationalization," "information society," and "aging." In response to the increase in trade volume and the first oil shock (1973) and second oil shock (1979) experienced in the 1970s, the international reputation of Japanese companies increased due to the establishment of energy-saving industries and the strengthening of the competitiveness of the petrochemical, electricity, and information industries, and overseas investments by major companies, i.e., the activities of multinational corporations, were also prominent. Meanwhile, in the context of the stability of "employment" and "prices," administrative and financial reforms were also proposed, but they did not produce sufficient results. Fifth, the 1990s was a time when the Japanese economy faced its biggest recession since the war, while the US economy continued to boom. Looking at the 1996 Economic Planning Agency report "Evaluation of the Economic Situation and Future Outlook," the report asked itself, "Why has the Japanese economy been experiencing low growth for such a long time?" In particular, it asked, "Why has consumer demand not grown despite the decline in the rate of inflation?" Although it was critical of the asset deflation theory, low interest rates theory, and income decline theory, it did not independently explain the reasons. However, if we consider the causes, one is that private banks, securities companies, real estate banks, insurance companies, etc., which were behind the monetary policy, invested huge amounts of money in areas such as stock prices, land, and buildings during the bubble period, which ended up fueling the bubble, and this led to a rise in land prices. The second is that workers' wages and incomes did not increase. The third is that the tax cuts since 1994 (Heisei 6) were supposed to increase the propensity to consume, but disposable income did not increase and the wage increase rate also declined. Thus, low growth continued for a long time in the 1990s. As a result, economic planning was unable to show any distinctive features, and the income gap between urban and rural areas widened. Local governments demanded that the national government increase financial assistance, but this was not enough. Finally, in 1999, the Omnibus Law on Decentralization was passed, which was praised as a new starting point for decentralization. However, financial decentralization was not guaranteed. Sixth, in the 2000s, the Japanese economy began to grow mainly through exports. The idea behind the economic plan was "structural reform." In 2002, one year after the Koizumi Cabinet came to power, the economy started to recover. The economy also started to improve in industries such as automobiles, electronics, steel, chemicals, machinery, and petrochemicals. Looking at the index of corporate capital investment, which was set at 100 in 2002, it was 128 in 2007, and consumer spending was 107. The corporate and overseas sectors continued to rise, but the growth of the household sector stagnated. The economic recovery continued when looking at the GDP (gross domestic product) in 2006. However, the widening gap in income and wages was noticeable. The number of full-time employees increased, mainly in large companies, and wages also rose slightly, but the gap between large companies and small and medium-sized companies worsened. A new problem is people in unstable employment. For example, in 2007, the number of non-regular employees such as dispatched workers, part-time workers, and casual workers increased by about 6 million to about 17.32 million. This number exceeded one-third of the total number of full-time employees. The number of people earning less than 2 million yen a year exceeded 10 million (2007), an increase of about 2 million compared to 1997. A major issue for the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare and the government is how to restore the economy, absorb jobs, and stabilize the Japanese economy. Furthermore, the state of security of people's lives (various social security systems) is also being called into question. Also in 2006, decisions were made to privatize the postal service (implemented in 2007), reduce the number of civil servants through administrative reform, relax financial regulations, sell state assets, etc. Furthermore, from around 2007, economic efficiency and market testing of public services for the national and local governments were strengthened, but it is said that these are not functioning adequately overall. In March 2008, the major American securities firm Bear Stearns was absorbed by JP Morgan Chase Bank, Fannie Mae (Federal National Mortgage Association) and Freddie Mac (Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation) essentially went bankrupt and were renationalized on September 7, and Lehman Brothers went bankrupt on September 15, causing a financial downturn. In Japan, the flight of American funds triggered a noticeable tightening of lending, and some real estate and construction companies went bankrupt one after another. The financial downturn also had an impact on the real economy, with industries such as automobiles, electronics, and machinery facing management crises and struggling to respond to production cuts, layoffs, and wage freezes. The government is being asked how it will plan the future of the Japanese economy in response to this downturn and aim for economic recovery. [Toyosaburo Sato and Yoshiharu Shimizu] "Economic Planning" by Okita Takeo (1962, Shiseido) ▽ "Modern Economics 9: Economic Policy" by Watanabe Tsunehiko and Chikui Jinkichi (1972, Iwanami Shoten) ▽ "Economic Systems Theory" by G. Grossman, translated by Ohno Yoshiteru (1969, Toyo Keizai Shinposha) ▽ "Pathology of Industrial Society" by Murakami Yasuaki (1975, Chuokoron-Shinsha) ▽ "The Truth about the Japanese Economy" by Yoshitomi Masaru (1998, Toyo Keizai Shinposha) ▽ "Is Economic Policy Good Enough" by Ito Mitsuharu (1999, Iwanami Shoten) ▽ "The Turbulent World Economy" by Shimizu Yoshiharu (2000, Shinhyoron) ▽ "The Long-Term Recession Theory" by Matsubara Ryuichiro (2003, NHK Publishing) ▽ "Why Can't Banks Change?" by Ikeo Kazuto (2003, Chuokoron-Shinsha)" ▽ "Living in a Risk Society" edited by Tachibanaki Toshiaki (2004, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "The Impact of the Lower Middle" by Ohmae Kenichi (2006, Kodansha)" ▽ "Japan Will Decline" by Sakakibara Eisuke (2007, Asahi Shimbun Publications)" ▽ "The Great Financial Collapse" by Mizuno Kazuo (2008, Japan Broadcasting Publishing Association) ▽ "Why Did Capitalism Collapse?" by Nakatani Iwao (2008, Shueisha) ▽ "Postwar Japanese Economy" by Hashimoto Toshiro (Iwanami Shinsho) ▽ "Economics in the Age of the Extremely High Yen" by Yoshida Kazuo (Chuko Shinsho) ▽ "The Political Economy of the Safety Net" by Kaneko Masaru (Chikuma Shinsho)" ▽ "Secular Stagnation" (Chikuma Shinsho) by the same author" ▽ "Unequal Society Japan" (Chuko Shinsho) by Toshiki Sato" [References] | | | | | | | | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
一般に政府が国民生活向上のために経済の目標を設定し、その実現を計画的に図ることをいう。自由放任の資本主義経済体制にあっては、私的所有の基礎のうえに家計や企業がそれぞれ私的目標を追求するが、それが市場の価格機能によって調整されて社会全体の生産と分配の調和を実現する、いわゆる分権的市場経済のもとでは経済計画は存在しない。他方、社会主義経済体制にあっては、国家が上から生産、流通、消費をコントロールする集権的な計画経済である。しかし、資本主義経済体制においても1930年代以降、経済計画の実施が急速に展開された。すでに1920年代から、ソ連という社会主義国家の出現に刺激されて、計画経済についての関心が高まり、経済計算論争も発生していたが、やがて1929年の世界大不況が発生すると、この大不況から脱出するため、1932年にアメリカでニューディールが実施された。これは公共投資をてこにして不況からの脱出を図る経済計画であって、国家の経済への介入であり、資本主義を修正し、民間経済と公共経済を複合させた経済計画であったといわれる。政府主導の経済計画はその後急速に各国に広まった。ついで第二次世界大戦が発生すると、戦争の遂行に経済力を効果的に動員するため、各国は必然的に国の軍事方針に適合させるために経済計画を統制的に立案・実施した。それは期せずして経済計画の技術を習得させる機会となった。そして第二次世界大戦後に主要各国は国民生活の安定を図るために経済全般のあり方を示すようになった。 資本主義体制下にあっては市場経済を自由放任しておくと、同種部門、異種部門間の競争が激しくなり、大手企業間の価格協定や市場割当協定などを試みて寡占化を図る。そうなると国民経済にとって不利益をもたらし独占禁止法などを通じて公正競争を図ることになる。こうした経済のあり方を計画的に実施しないと国民経済にとってマイナスになるからである。政府は国民生活を安定させるため、完全雇用、物価安定、活力ある経済、経済成長、国際収支の均衡、福祉社会、環境保全、住居など国民経済の課題を計画的に実施するようになった。さらに今日では、国民の経済計画に必要な経済理論の発展、国民経済計算など諸統計の整備、コンピュータの発達などが経済計画の実施を容易にしている。 経済計画の性格はさまざまである。単なる将来予測を示し、民間経済に見通しないし指針を与えるものから、計画目標に向かって政府部門の活動を調整するとともに、財政・金融政策などにより民間部門を誘導するもの、さらにある程度の強権介入に及ぶものまである。なによりも不況、景気後退を避け、成長、環境、福祉、雇用などの充実をどう図っていくかが今日の経済計画の課題である。 [佐藤豊三郎・清水嘉治] 戦後主要国の経済計画のポイントフランスは、有名な1946年の復興計画(モネ・プラン)からその後の数次にわたる近代化計画まで、かなり本格的な経済計画を実施している。指針的計画が主体ではあるが、電力、鉄道、航空、銀行などの国有化を進め、政府は国の投資総額の相当部分を左右するに至っている。イタリアも、著名なENI(エニ)、IRI(イリ)などの特異な国家持株会社が重要産業で大きな比重を占める方式をとり、国家介入の度合いが高い。イギリスも早くから産業の国有化を進め、有名な1965年の「経済計画」The National Plan以来、経済計画に努めている混合経済体制の国である。その他のヨーロッパ諸国もそれぞれ特徴ある経済計画を行っており、アジア、アフリカなどの発展途上国でも経済計画が盛んである。 日本でも戦後内閣が交代するたびにおもな経済計画がたてられた。いくつかの事例を紹介してみる。それぞれの計画の目標を追求しているが、性格は指針的計画である。 第一は、戦後の経済復興から15年を経過した1960年(昭和35)の池田勇人(はやと)内閣の所得倍増計画である。これは国民生活向上のために10年間で国民所得を倍増するという計画であった。敗戦の困難な経済生活から立ち上がり、日本の経済自立を図るために官・民一体となった計画が待望されていたが、そのニーズに対応した。国民の勤労意欲に支えられ、計画は順調に進み、実際には目標より早い1967年に達成した。国民はなによりも衣食住を満たすためによく働いた。 第二は、1970年代の佐藤栄作内閣による「新経済社会発展計画」で、国民生活の量だけでなく質も高める計画であった。とくに住宅建設、社会保険の充実などを目ざしたが、十分な成果をみなかった。 第三は、1973年の田中角栄内閣による「経済社会基本計画」であり、有名になった「日本列島改造計画」である。その主軸は国土開発のための新幹線、自動車道のネットワークへの公共投資を積極的に実施し、工場の地方への再配置を内容としたハードな計画であった。日本版クルマ社会の実現であった。一方で重化学工業の発展、石油化学コンビナートの躍進をみたが、他方で公害などが激増した時期であった。したがってこの改造計画の実施過程で、所得増、雇用増もみられたが、同時に地価高騰、都市住宅建設ラッシュ、関連企業の群生が目だった。また都市への人口集中に基づく学校、病院、社会保険施設の不足などひずみの問題も表面化した。 第四は、1980年代の重要課題として「国際化」「情報化」「高齢化」にどう対応するかの計画であった。貿易量の増大、1970年代に経験した第一次オイル・ショック(1973)、第二次オイル・ショック(1979)への対応のなかで、エネルギー節約型産業の定着、石油化学、電力、情報産業の競争力強化などによって国際的に日本企業の評価が高まり、大手企業の海外投資すなわち多国籍企業の活動も目だった。一方「雇用」の安定、「物価」の安定のなかで、行財政改革なども提案されたが、十分な成果をみなかった。 第五に、1990年代の日本経済はアメリカの好景気持続のなかで、戦後最大の不況に直面した時期である。1996年度の経済企画庁のレポート『景気局面の評価と今後の展望』をみると「日本経済はなぜ長期にわたって低成長なのか」と自問した。とくに「物価上昇率の低下にもかかわらず消費需要はなぜ伸びないのか」と。だが資産デフレ説、低金利説、所得低下説などに対しては批判的であったが、自ら主体的に解明されなかった。しかしその原因を考えてみれば、その一は、金融政策の後ろ手にあった民間銀行、証券会社、不動産銀行、保険会社などが、バブル期に株価、土地、ビル建物などの分野に莫大な資金を投下し、バブルをあおる結果になり、それが地価高騰をもたらしたのではなかったか。その二は、勤労者の賃金、所得が伸びなかったことにある。その三は、1994年(平成6)以降の減税は消費性向を高めるはずだったが、可処分所得も伸びず、賃金上昇率も低下したことにあった。こうして1990年代は低成長が長く続いた。したがって経済計画も特色を出すことができずに、都市と地方の所得格差を拡大した。地方自治体は国に対して財政援助を拡大する要求をしたが、十分ではなかった。だが1999年にやっと地方分権一括法が成立し、分権の新しい出発点として評価された。だが財政上の地方分権は保障されなかった。 第六に、2000年代に入って日本経済は、輸出を中心に成長を支えることになった。経済計画の理念は「構造改革」にあった。2002年、小泉内閣の政権発足1年後に景気回復が始まった。自動車、電機、鉄鋼、化学、機械、石油化学などの産業の景気も上向いてきた。企業の設備投資を2002年100とした場合の指数でみると、2007年は128であり、消費支出は107であった。企業部門と海外部門の上昇は続いたが家計部門の伸びは停滞した。2006年のGDP(国内総生産)でみても景気回復は続いた。だが所得や賃金の格差の拡大が目だっていた。大企業を中心にして正社員雇用は増加し賃金も若干上昇したが、大企業と中小企業との格差は進行した。新しい問題は不安定な就業状態にある人たちである。たとえば、2007年派遣、パート、アルバイトといった非正社員が約600万人増加し、約1732万人になった。その数は正社員総数の3分の1を超えた。年間収入200万円以下の人が1000万人(2007)を超え1997年に比較しても約200万人増加した点である。厚生労働省、政府にとって、どのように景気を回復し、雇用を吸収していき、日本経済を安定させるかが大きな課題である。さらに生活の安全保障(さまざまな社会保障制度)のあり方も問われる。 また2006年には、郵政事業の民営化(2007年実施)、行政改革による公務員数削減、金融規制の緩和、国有資産の売却などが決定された。さらに2007年ごろから経済の効率性、国と地方自治体の公共サービスの市場化テストなどが強化されたが、全体として十分に機能してはいないという。 2008年3月、アメリカ証券大手ベアー・スターンズがJPモルガン・チェース銀行に吸収され、9月7日にファニーメイ(連邦住宅抵当金庫)とフレディマック(連邦住宅貸付抵当公社)が実質的に破綻(はたん)し、再国有化され、9月15日にリーマン・ブラザーズが経営破綻し、金融大不況が起こった。日本でもアメリカ系ファンドの資金逃避を契機に貸し渋りが目だち、一部不動産、建設業の倒産が相次いだ。金融大不況は実体経済に対してもインパクトを与え、自動車、電機、機械などの産業は経営危機に直面し、生産縮小、人減らし、賃金凍結などにどう対応するかに苦心している。政府はこの大不況に対して今後の日本経済計画をどのようにたて、景気回復を目ざすかが問われている。 [佐藤豊三郎・清水嘉治] 『大来佐武郎著『経済計画』(1962・至誠堂)』▽『渡部経彦・筑井甚吉著『現代経済学9 経済政策』(1972・岩波書店)』▽『G・グロスマン著、大野吉輝訳『経済体制論』(1969・東洋経済新報社)』▽『村上泰亮著『産業社会の病理』(1975・中央公論社)』▽『吉富勝著『日本経済の真実』(1998・東洋経済新報社)』▽『伊東光晴著『「経済政策」はこれでよいか』(1999・岩波書店)』▽『清水嘉治著『激動する世界経済』(2000・新評論)』▽『松原隆一郎著『長期不況論』(2003・日本放送出版協会)』▽『池尾和人著『銀行はなぜ変われないのか』(2003・中央公論新社)』▽『橘木俊詔編『リスク社会を生きる』(2004・岩波書店)』▽『大前研一著『ロウアーミドルの衝撃』(2006・講談社)』▽『榊原英資著『日本は没落する』(2007・朝日新聞出版)』▽『水野和夫著『金融大崩壊』(2008・日本放送出版協会)』▽『中谷巌著『資本主義はなぜ自壊したのか』(2008・集英社)』▽『橋本寿朗著『戦後の日本経済』(岩波新書)』▽『吉田和男著『超円高時代の経済学』(中公新書)』▽『金子勝著『セーフティーネットの政治経済学』(ちくま新書)』▽『同著『長期停滞』(ちくま新書)』▽『佐藤俊樹著『不平等社会日本』(中公新書)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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Please see the "Kasagatake" page. Sourc...
…It grows relatively well even in high temperatur...
A mutual aid alliance formed between Russia and Fr...
Also known as the giant larva. A marsupial mammal ...
…the standard composition of copper alloys used a...
Born: 1526. Istanbul Died: April 7, 1600. Court po...
A term used in Japanese music. Also written as &qu...
...Ivory, buffalo horn, and tortoiseshell are use...