Ottoman Empire

Japanese: オスマン帝国 - オスマンていこく（英語表記）Ottoman

This great empire emerged in northwestern Anatolia at the end of the 13th century and dominated Eastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. Until now, it has often been referred to as the Ottoman Turkish Empire. However, recent research has revealed that although the ruler (the Sultan) was Turkish and it was an Islamic state, it embraced many ethnicities and religions and appointed high-ranking officials without distinction of ethnicity or religion, so it has come to be referred to simply as the Ottoman Empire.
[Early Period] According to the legend of their founding, the Osman family was the head of a tribe of the Oghuz, a Turkic tribe, the same as the Seljuk dynasty. They moved from Central Asia to the Khorasan region of Iran, and are said to have entered Anatolia during the time of the grandfather of the founder of the country, Osman I. After the Seljuk dynasty of Rum was destroyed by the Mongol invasion in the mid-13th century, many principalities were born in Anatolia during the period of chaos, and the state (with its capital, Bursa) established by Osman I around 1299 became the basis of the later Ottoman Empire. From around the mid-14th century, they began to advance into the Balkans, moving their capital to Edirne (Adrianople), and in 1389 they won a crushing victory in the Battle of Kosovo, bringing the Balkans under their control. After this battle, under the fourth monarch, Bayezid I, the title of the monarch changed from Bey to Sultan. Bayezid I expanded his country by defeating the allied forces of Eastern Europe in the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, but was defeated by the Timur army advancing westward in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, and the country was on the brink of destruction. After about a decade of interregnum, the country was restored, and in 1453, under Mehmed II, he occupied Constantinople, destroying the Byzantine Empire, renamed it Istanbul and moved the capital there (it remained the capital until the fall of the empire in 1922). After that, the Khanate of Crimea became a tributary state, and the country entered the period of a true empire. The taxation and military systems were centered on cavalry sipahis, who originated from Turkish frontier knights, and the timar system (which had the same origin as the iqta system), which gave them the right to collect taxes in return for military service, was established around the middle of the 15th century. The sultan's standing army was also formed as a corps of Janissaries, armed with rifles, under the Deusirme system (forced conscription of Christian children) which was implemented when the sultan expanded into the Balkans in the second half of the 14th century.
[Middle Period] During the reign of Selim I in the early 16th century, the empire defeated the Safavids and acquired eastern Anatolia. In 1517, the empire destroyed the Mamluks and took control of Syria and Egypt, placing Mecca and Medina under its protection (this was traditionally considered the establishment of the Sultanate-Caliphate, but this theory is now rejected). During the reign of Suleiman I, the empire reached its zenith with the victory at the Battle of Mohács (1526), which gave it control of Hungary, the first siege of Vienna (1529), and the victory at the Battle of Preveza (1538), which established naval control over the Mediterranean, and it granted the Capitulation to France (1536). After his death, the empire lost the naval Battle of Lepanto (1571), but its dominance in the Mediterranean remained unchanged. The empire continued to enjoy a period of stability until the failure of the second siege of Vienna (1683) and the loss of Hungary through the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699). Within the empire, the importance of the sepahis, who did not use firearms, waned from the end of the 16th century to the 17th century, and the empire shifted to a standing army, while the timar system became a mere formality and changed to a taxation contract system. During this period, the central bureaucratic system was established and was considered a model for European countries, and due to its policy of ethnic and religious tolerance, it became the safest place of refuge for Jews (Sephardim) on the Iberian Peninsula who came under the Reconquista movement. In the 18th century, the empire was forced to learn about and acquire information from its rival, Europe, and this movement in the first half of the century was called the Tulip Age. The first half of the 18th century was the last period of stability for the empire, without any major territorial losses.
[Late Period] The first act of the "Eastern Question", which is considered to be synonymous with the decline of the Ottoman Empire, began with the Treaty of Küçük-Kaynarca in 1774 and the resulting loss of the Crime Khanate. Unlike the previous territorial losses, this was the loss of a tributary Islamic state, and from this point onwards, a movement emerged that made the Sultan of the Empire aware of himself as the Sultan-Caliph of the Islamic world. In addition, attempts at Westernization in terms of technology and systems (New Politics) began at the end of the 18th century, and Selim III established a Western-style army (New Army). Meanwhile, in the 19th century, the Eastern Question became serious with the Greek War of Independence that began in 1821. In 1826, Mahmud II completely abolished the Janissaries, who had been an obstacle to modernization. After the defeat in the First Egyptian-Turkish War, the Gülhane Edict was issued in 1839, and the Westernization reforms known as the Tanzimat were started, but due to the obstruction of the ulama, they were incomplete. In 1876, this reform was terminated and the Midhat Constitution was issued, but its implementation was suspended by Abdul Hamid II the following year, on the pretext of the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War. In 1878, the Empire lost most of its European territories in the Treaty of Berlin, and it declined to the point of being called a "deathly ill man." In 1908, the Young Turks revolution, led by Enver Pasha, took place, and the suspended constitution was reinstated. After the Young Turk government lost Macedonia in the First Balkan War in 1912, it tried to approach Germany diplomatically. It participated in World War I on the side of the Allies, but surrendered, and in August 1920, it signed the Treaty of Sèvres, losing its territory in West Asia. In 1919, while peace treaty negotiations were underway, Greek troops began to invade Izmir (Smyrna), but Mustafa Kemal formed the Turkish Nationalist Party to fight against the Istanbul government's inability to cope with the threat of national annihilation, establishing the Ankara government in 1920 and repelling the Greek forces in 1922. The sultanate was abolished in the same year, and the Ottoman Empire, which had existed for over 600 years, came to an end.

Source: Obunsha World History Dictionary, Third Edition About Obunsha World History Dictionary, Third Edition

Japanese:

13世紀末にアナトリア北西部で勃興し，東ヨーロッパ・西アジア・北アフリカを支配した大帝国
これまでオスマン−トルコ帝国と記述されることが多かった。しかし近年の研究で，君主（スルタン）がトルコ人でイスラーム国家だが，多民族と多宗教を包摂し，高級官僚も民族・宗教の別なく登用したところから，単にオスマン帝国と記述されるようになった。
【前期】始祖伝説によるとオスマン家は，セルジューク朝と同じトルコ系オグズ族出身で一部族の長だったといわれる。中央アジアからイランのホラサーン地方に移り，建国の祖オスマン１世の祖父のときアナトリアにはいったとされる。ルーム−セルジューク朝が13世紀半ばにモンゴル人の侵入で滅んだのち，混乱期のアナトリアで多くの侯国が誕生し，1299年ごろオスマン１世によって建てられた国（首都ブルサ）が，のちのオスマン帝国のもとになった。14世紀半ばころからバルカンへの進出を開始してエディルネ（アドリアノープル）に遷都し，1389年コソヴォの戦いに圧勝してバルカンを支配下におさめた。この戦いのあと君主になった第４代バヤジット１世のときから，君主の称号もベイからスルタンに変わった。バヤジット１世は，1396年ニコポリスの戦いで東欧連合軍に勝利して国勢を拡張したが，1402年に西進するティムール軍にアンカラの戦いで大敗し，国家も滅亡の危機にひんした。約10年にわたる空位時代ののち再興され，メフメト２世の1453年，コンスタンティノープルを占領してビザンツ帝国を滅ぼし，イスタンブルと改称して遷都（以後1922年の帝国滅亡まで首都）。その後クリム（クリミア）−ハン国をも朝貢国とし，正真正銘の帝国期にはいった。徴税制度と軍事制度に関しては，トルコ系の辺境騎士に起源をもつ騎兵シパーヒーが中心で，彼らに対して軍事奉仕の見返りとして徴税権を与えるティマール制（イクター制と同源）も15世紀半ばころに確立された。またスルタンの常備軍は，14世紀後半のバルカン進出とともに実施されたデウシルメ制（キリスト教徒子弟の強制徴用）のなかで，鉄砲を持つ歩兵イェニチェリ軍団として形成された。
【中期】16世紀初めのセリム１世時代，サファヴィー朝に勝利してアナトリア東部を獲得し，さらに1517年マムルーク朝を滅ぼしてシリア・エジプトを領有，メッカ・メディナを保護下に置いた（従来，これをもってスルタン−カリフ制の成立とされていたが，現在この説は否定されている）。続くスレイマン１世時代，モハーチの戦いの勝利（1526）によるハンガリー領有，第１次ウィーン包囲（1529），プレヴェザの海戦の勝利（1538）による地中海の制海権の確立などで帝国は全盛期を現出し，フランスにカピチュレーションを与えた（1536）。彼の死後，レパントの海戦に敗北（1571）するも，地中海における帝国の優位は変わらなかった。その後も第２次ウィーン包囲の失敗（1683），カルロヴィッツ条約（1699）によるハンガリーの喪失まで，帝国の安定期は続いた。帝国内では，16世紀末〜17世紀にかけて火器を使用しないシパーヒーの重要性が薄れ，常備軍中心に移るとともにティマール制も形骸化して，徴税請負制へと変化していった。またこの時期，整備された中央官僚制度はヨーロッパ諸国のモデルとされ，民族や宗教に寛容な政策もあって，国土回復運動にともなうイベリア半島のユダヤ教徒（セファルディム）の最も安全な亡命先となった。18世紀の帝国は，否応なくライバルであるヨーロッパの情報を知り学ぶことが要求される時代となり，同世紀前半のこの動きはチューリップ時代と呼ばれた。18世紀前半，帝国は領土的な大きな喪失はなく，最後の安定期だった。
【後期】オスマン帝国衰退の代名詞とされる“東方問題”の第一幕は，1774年のキュチュク−カイナルジャ条約とこれにともなうクリム−ハン国の喪失で始まった。それまでの領土喪失と異なり，朝貢するイスラーム国家の喪失であり，これ以後帝国のスルタンを，イスラーム世界におけるスルタン−カリフと意識させるような動きが生まれてくることとなった。また技術・制度面での西欧化改革の試み（新政）が18世紀末から開始され，セリム３世によって洋式軍隊（新式軍）が創設された。いっぽう，19世紀にはいると，1821年からのギリシア独立戦争によって東方問題が本格化した。1826年，マフムト２世によって，近代化の障害となっていたイェニチェリが全廃された。そして第１次エジプト−トルコ戦争の敗北によって，1839年にギュルハネ勅令が発布されタンジマートと呼ばれる西欧化改革が開始されたが，ウラマーらの妨害もあって不徹底に終わった。1876年，この改革を打ち切り，ミドハト憲法が発布されるが，翌77年の露土戦争勃発を口実に，アブデュル＝ハミト２世によって施行を停止された。また1878年のベルリン条約でヨーロッパ領の大部分を失い，帝国は“ひん死の重病人”と呼ばれるまでに衰退した。1908年エンヴェル＝パシャらを中心とする青年トルコ革命が起こり，停止されていた憲法が復活した。青年トルコ政権は，1912年の第１次バルカン戦争に敗北してマケドニアを失うと，外交面でドイツヘの接近をはかった。第一次世界大戦には同盟国側で参戦するが降伏し，1920年８月セーヴル条約を結び西アジアの領土を失った。講和条約交渉中の1919年，ギリシア軍のイズミル（スミルナ）侵入が始まるが，亡国の危機に対処できないイスタンブル政権に対して，ムスタファ＝ケマルがトルコ国民党を結成して決起し，20年アンカラ政権を樹立，22年ギリシア軍を撃退した。同年スルタン制が廃止され，600年以上にわたるオスマン帝国はここに滅亡した。

出典　旺文社世界史事典三訂版旺文社世界史事典三訂版について　情報

<<: osmium

>>: Ottomanism - Ottomanism (English spelling)