Uncertainty

Japanese: 不確実性 - ふかくじつせい(英語表記)uncertainty
Uncertainty

A category that measures the accuracy of information that humans have about events that may occur in the future. Deciding the next move in games such as cards or shogi, or in sports such as baseball or soccer, or making decisions in everyday life, or making decisions in a company about investments or new product development, is technically called decision making, and the person who makes the decision is called a decision maker. When making a decision, there is always a purpose for which the decision is made. For example, in the case of a company, the purpose is long-term profits, and in games or sports, the purpose is to get a higher score than the opponent. Therefore, the best decision for a decision maker is one that achieves that purpose or maximizes the value of the purpose.

Now, whether or not a goal can be achieved, or what the numerical value of a goal will be, is determined by two factors: (1) the decision maker's actions, and (2) the state of society or nature (or the hand of the opponent in a game, etc.). (1) is a controllable variable that the decision maker can control, while (2) is an uncontrollable variable. Therefore, the decision maker makes the decision in (1) while predicting the uncontrollable variable (2) as accurately as possible. In this case, the accuracy of the information the decision maker has about (2) can be classified into four types: (a) certainty, (b) risk, (c) uncertainty, and (d) ignorance.

[a] Certainty refers to a situation where you know with certainty what will happen. [b] Risk refers to a situation where you do not know with certainty what will happen, but you know the possible states and their probability distribution. In contrast, [c] Uncertainty refers to a situation where you know the possible states, but you do not know their probability distribution. [d] Ignorance refers to a situation where you cannot predict at all what will happen or what states are possible. Note that uncertainty in the broad sense refers to both [b] risk and [c] uncertainty.

This conceptual framework was first proposed by economist F. H. Knight in the 1920s, and was re-advocated in the 1940s and 1950s by mathematician J. Neumann, economist O. Morgenstern, statistician A. Wald, and others. Knight, Neumann, and Morgenstern proposed the concept to elucidate corporate and human behavior, while Wald proposed it to build a statistical estimation theory, and this concept remains the basis of current decision-making theory in economics and business management under uncertainty.

[Kawa Tomonori]

"The Economics of Decision Making" by Kimio Miyagawa (1968, 1969, Maruzen) " "The Economics of Uncertainty" by Yasuhiro Sakai (1982, Yuhikaku)

[References] | Decision-making
Conceptual diagram of uncertainty
©Shogakukan ">

Conceptual diagram of uncertainty


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

将来起こりうべき事象に関して人間がもつ情報の正確さについての一区分。トランプ、将棋などのゲームや野球、サッカーなどのスポーツで次の手を決めたり、日常生活である決定をしたり、あるいは企業で投資や新製品開発などの決定をしたりすることを、専門用語では意思決定decision makingといい、意思決定を行う人を意思決定者decision makerという。ある意思決定を行うときには、なんのために決定を行うかという目的がかならずある。たとえば、企業の場合には長期的な利潤、ゲームやスポーツの場合には相手よりも高い点数をとるのが目的となる。それゆえ、意思決定者にとって最良の決定とは、その目的を達成したり、目的の値を最大にするような決定である。

 さて、その目的を達成できるか否か、あるいはある目的の数値がどのくらいになるかは、〔1〕意思決定者の行動と、〔2〕社会や自然の状態(あるいはゲームなどのときには相手のとる手)の2種類の要因によって決定される。〔1〕は意思決定者にとってコントロールできる制御可能な変数であるが、〔2〕は制御不可能な変数である。したがって、意思決定者は、〔2〕の制御不可能な変数をできるだけ正確に予想しながら、〔1〕の決定を行うことになる。このとき、〔2〕に関して意思決定者がもっている情報の正確さについて、〔a〕確実性、〔b〕リスクrisk、〔c〕不確実性、〔d〕無知、の4種類に分類することができる。

 〔a〕確実性は、何が起こるか確定的にわかっている場合をいう。〔b〕リスクは、何が起こるか確定的にはわからないが、起こりうる状態はわかっており、かつその確率分布がわかっている場合をいい、これに対して、〔c〕不確実性は、起こりうる状態はわかっているが、その確率分布がわかっていない場合をいう。〔d〕無知とは、何が起こるか、どのような状態が起こりうるか、まったく予見できない場合をいう。なお、広義の不確実性とは、〔b〕リスクと〔c〕不確実性の両者をさす。

 このような概念的な枠組みは、1920年代に経済学者F・H・ナイトが初めて発表し、40年代から50年代にかけて数学者のJ・ノイマンと経済学者のO・モルゲンシュテルンや統計学者のA・ワルトなどがふたたび提唱したものである。ナイト、ノイマンとモルゲンシュテルンは企業行動と人間行動の解明のために、ワルトは統計的な推定理論の構築のために提出した概念であり、この概念は現在の不確実性下の経済学や経営学の意思決定理論の基礎となっている。

[川智教]

『宮川公男著『意思決定の経済学』全二巻(1968、69・丸善)』『酒井泰弘著『不確実性の経済学』(1982・有斐閣)』

[参照項目] | 意思決定
不確実性の概念図
©Shogakukan">

不確実性の概念図


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