Cost - Hiyou

Japanese: 費用 - ひよう
Cost - Hiyou

Generally, it refers to the amount of value consumed, but in accounting and economics it refers to the prices paid for various production factors and capital goods such as capital, land, buildings, machinery, labor, raw materials, and fuel necessary to produce goods, i.e. interest, rent, depreciation, wages, and insurance premiums.

[Tetsuya Hitosugi]

Accounting Costs

In accounting, when considered on a per-product basis, it is called cost, and is distinguished from expenses in the profit and loss calculation for a certain period of time. In addition, in order to clarify the occurrence of net profit or loss, the principle of matching expenses is called the principle of matching revenues and expenses required to obtain it, and the break-even point in business analysis shows this in terms of production volume, sales amount, etc. A mere sacrifice of value that does not contribute to profit generation is a loss, and is distinguished from expenses.

[Tetsuya Hitosugi]

Economic Costs

In economics, cost is used synonymously with production cost and is divided into the following categories:

(1) Direct costs and indirect costs Costs that are directly required for production, such as raw material costs, fuel costs, and wages, are called direct costs. Costs that are not directly related to production, such as depreciation costs, advertising costs, and white-collar wages, are called indirect costs.

(2) Fixed costs and variable costs Costs that occur at a constant rate regardless of production volume are called fixed costs, while costs that occur in relation to production volume are called variable costs. The latter are further divided into proportional costs, such as raw material costs and power costs, which increase in proportion to production volume, and non-proportional costs, such as wages and repair costs, which increase at a rate that is disproportionate to the increase in production volume. The sum of these costs is the total cost.

(3) Average cost and marginal cost Average cost is total cost divided by production volume. Marginal cost is the increase in total cost required when increasing production by one unit. Consider a small competitive company. The price of the product is determined in the market, so it is a given for this company. In this case, the company, which wants to maximize profits, will not produce to the fullest extent of its production capacity, but will produce the amount at which the market price and marginal cost are at equilibrium. This is how economics performs price and cost analysis.

(4) Private costs and social costs Private costs are the costs that a company that produces a certain product actually pays, while social costs are the costs that society as a whole bears for that production. For example, when a company's production causes harm to the outside world in the form of smoke (called external diseconomies), the occurrence of social costs is added to the company's private costs. If the social costs of such pollution are not compensated for by the company itself, this is called a market deficiency or defect, and allowing the company to eliminate this social cost by installing smoke prevention devices is called PPP (polluter pays principle). This is nothing more than filling the market deficiency with policy. Conversely, if a local government provides benefits through expenditures and the company is therefore making a profit, the company should pay a price to the local government according to the beneficiary pays principle. This is said to be a business tax. These are the analytical methods used in welfare economics and public economics.

[Tetsuya Hitosugi]

"P.A. Samuelson, Economics (11th edition), supervised by Shigeto Tsuru, 2 volumes (1981, Iwanami Shoten)""The Social Costs of the Automobile, by Hirofumi Uzawa (Iwanami Shinsho)"

[Reference] | Law of Production Costs

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一般的に価値の費消額をいうが、会計学および経済学では、商品を生産するに必要な資本、土地、建物、機械、労働力、原材料、燃料などのさまざまな生産要素・生産財に支払われる代価、すなわち利子、賃借料、減価償却費、賃金、保険料などをいう。

[一杉哲也]

会計学上の費用

会計学では製品一単位で考える場合にコストcost(原価)といい、一定期間についての損益計算上の費用expenseと区別される。また、純損益発生を明らかにするため、収益とこれを得るために要した費用を対応させて認識することを費用収益対応の原則といい、これを生産量、売上額などに関して示したのが経営分析の損益分岐点である。収益獲得に貢献しない単なる価値犠牲は損失lossであり、費用と区別される。

[一杉哲也]

経済学上の費用

経済学では、費用は生産費と同義に用いられ、次のような区分がある。

(1)直接費用・間接費用 原材料費、燃料費および賃金など、生産に直接必要とされる費用を直接費用といい、減価償却費、宣伝広告費およびホワイトカラーの給料など、生産に直接関係しない費用を間接費用という。

(2)固定費用・可変費用 生産量の大小に関係なく一定額で発生する費用を固定費用といい、生産量と関連して発生する費用を可変費用という。後者はさらに、原材料費、動力費など生産量に比例して増加する比例費用と、賃金、補修費など生産量の増大とは不比例的な増加率をもつ不比例費用に分けられる。これらを積み上げたのが総費用である。

(3)平均費用・限界費用 平均費用は、総費用を生産量で除したものである。限界費用は、生産量を1個増やしたときに必要となる総費用の増加分のことである。いま競争状態にある小企業を考えると、製品の価格は市場で決まってしまうので、この企業にとっては与えられたものとなる。すると利潤を極大にしようとするこの企業は、生産能力いっぱいに生産するのではなく、市場価格と限界費用が折り合う量を生産することになる。経済学はこのような形で価格・費用分析を行う。

(4)私的費用・社会的費用 私的費用は、ある生産を行う企業が実際に支払う費用であり、社会的費用は、その生産のために社会全体が負担する費用である。たとえば、ある企業の生産が、外部に煤煙(ばいえん)の害を与えたとき(外部不経済という)、社会的費用の発生が企業の私的費用にプラスされる。こうした公害の社会的費用が、なんら当企業によって補償されないことを、市場の欠落ないし欠陥というが、この社会的費用を当企業が煤煙防止装置をつけて消滅するようにさせることをPPP(汚染者負担の原則)という。市場の欠落を政策によって埋めることにほかならない。逆に、地方公共団体が支出によって便益を提供し、そのため当企業が利益をあげているとすれば、受益者負担の原則によって当企業が地方公共団体に代価を払うべきであろう。これが営業税であるとされる。これらが厚生経済学、公共経済学の分析手法である。

[一杉哲也]

『P・A・サムエルソン著、都留重人監訳『経済学(原書第11版)』全二冊(1981・岩波書店)』『宇沢弘文著『自動車の社会的費用』(岩波新書)』

[参照項目] | 生産費の法則

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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