North-South problem

Japanese: 南北問題 - なんぼくもんだい（英語表記）North-South problem

It is said that Oliver Franks, chairman of Lloyds Bank (now Lloyds TSB Bank) in the UK, first used the term "North-South problem" in 1959. What he meant was that more than a decade after the end of World War II, the central issue in the world was no longer the East-West problem, which refers to the conflict between capitalist and socialist countries, but the North-South problem, which is centered on the economic disparity between the wealthy industrialized countries in the North and the poor developing countries in the South. However, although tensions between the East and West eased in the 1960s and the North-South problem came to the forefront, until the end of the East-West confrontation with the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, the North-South problem was not unrelated to the East-West problem, and the two were intricately intertwined, with both East and West trying to use the countries of the South as part of their own global strategies and attract them into their own camps.

[Hikari Aihara]

Basic Position of North and South Korea

After World War II, the countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America that had been European colonies achieved "political independence," and the voice of these southern countries on the international political stage increased. However, the economic gap between the north and the south widened rather than narrowed, and the south was far from "economic independence." The southern countries believed that this economic gap could only be eliminated through structural reform of the postwar international economic order.

In response to this, the developed capitalist countries of the North, especially the United States, have taken the position that the international economic order based on the mechanism of a free and non-discriminatory market economy is a legitimate system, that it is already functioning effectively, and that there is no need to reform it. In this way, the current situation is one in which various negotiations are taking place in an environment where the balance of power is also changing between the North and the South, based on fundamentally opposing ideas.

[Hikari Aihara]

The developing country dilemma

After World War II, most developing countries were incorporated into the international division of labor led by developed countries, supplying food, luxury goods, and industrial raw materials to developed countries and providing a market for the industrial products of developed countries. Although most of them were agricultural countries, they were unable to supply enough staple grains to their own people, and had monoculture economies that specialized in the production of one or two industrial raw materials, such as agricultural products such as hemp and rubber. In order to achieve "economic independence" and eliminate the North-South gap, developing countries needed to break away from this monoculture economy and diversify economically - industrialize or modernize. However, they needed foreign currency to import equipment and food for diversification, and they were faced with the dilemma of having to rely on the export of traditional primary products to obtain that foreign currency. However, in the long term, trade in primary products has a disadvantageous tendency (the primary product problem). The reasons for this include low growth in demand for primary commodities in developed countries, agricultural protectionism in developed countries, and the fact that the supply of primary commodities is inflexible in response to price changes, meaning that many commodities are not able to adjust production immediately when prices change. This, combined with low growth in demand, makes the relative prices of primary commodities unfavorable to industrial goods. Primary commodity exports are volatile due to the economic cycles of industrial countries, which has negative economic and social effects on development plans and other industrial sectors.

In order to escape the long-term stagnation and instability of the primary product economy described above, developing countries need to diversify and upgrade their export and economic structures. Export diversification through industrialization is in line with this trend, but the policies of developed countries tend to work against it. Tariff reductions, mainly undertaken after World War II under the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the predecessor of the World Trade Organization, or WTO), were focused on capital-intensive products that were of great interest to developed countries, while tariffs on labor-intensive products such as textiles, clothing, footwear, and sporting goods, which are major industrial exports of developing countries, remained at relatively high levels.

In addition, import restrictions, export restraints, import levies, and anti-dumping duties control the export of industrial goods from developing countries. For example, textiles are labor intensive, do not require large economies, and can be produced with simple techniques. But the same textile sector also accounts for a significant proportion of developed countries and is often geographically concentrated. After import quotas for cotton products were negotiated at the GATT in 1962, the scope was expanded to include man-made fibers, wool, and the Multifibre Agreement.

To overcome these difficulties, developing countries demanded the abolition of developed countries' protectionist policies regarding primary commodity exports, the establishment of international commodity agreements to stabilize prices and incomes, and the implementation of compensatory loans. As for industrial products, they also demanded the right to protect domestic industries for industrialization, technology transfer, improved access to developed country markets for products, and a preferential system for developing countries' exports of products.

In order to put pressure on the North, developing countries formed the Group of 77 (G77) in 1964 to coordinate policies on the South side for negotiations with the North. They also established the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), which had a secretariat, and this contributed to unifying the views of the South. UNCTAD's achievements include the realization of the preferential treatment system and the establishment of the Common Fund for Commodities (a fund for international commodity agreements, including buffer stocks to keep the prices of primary commodities within a predetermined range, and for research and marketing of primary commodities in developing countries. It came into effect in June 1989, after a long delay), which took advantage of the pressure of resource nationalism during the oil shock. However, both of these funds are smaller in scale and range of applicable items than the developing countries had originally requested. In addition, with the long-term stagnation of developed countries since the 1980s (prioritization of domestic issues) and the end of the Cold War, there has been dissatisfaction with the financial burden on UN organizations, and UNCTAD has come under strong criticism, but its functions of conducting research and studies on developing countries, and providing technical guidance and advice are important.

[Hikari Aihara]

Widening disparities between North and South, within the North, and within the South

From the second half of the 1970s, the strong attitude of the South towards the North began to weaken. This was due to the polarization among the countries of the South that occurred with the deepening of the global recession and the apparent South-South gap. On the one hand, there was the rise and continued growth of the Newly Industrialized Economies (NIES), while on the other hand, there was the widening gap between oil exporting countries and non-oil exporting countries and least developed countries (LDCs). This was the emergence of the so-called South-South problem.

During the 1980s, developing countries, except for the Asian NIES, experienced economic stagnation and a decline in living standards, and the decade was called the "lost decade." According to the United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) Human Development Report 1996, while the developed countries continued to grow economically, many developing countries were economically behind compared to 10 years ago. The polarization of wealth and poverty is spreading worldwide. The report states that only three developed countries saw their per capita national income decline compared to the 1980s, while 70 developing countries saw their per capita income fall below that of the 1960s. The world's gross national product (GNP) increased by about 40% in the decade from 1975 to 1985, but only a few benefited from this, and the number of poor people actually increased. The report analyzes that the economic disparity between the rich and the poor, and between developed and developing countries, is worsening.

According to UNCTAD, the GDP growth rate of the least developed countries (LDCs) among developing countries remains low, and has worsened since the 1990s. There were 42 LDCs in the world in the 1980s, but this number increased to 48 in 1996 with a population of approximately 600 million, and by 2009, this number had grown to 49 with a population of approximately 700 million.

[Hikari Aihara]

Environment and Development

In recent years, measures to combat environmental destruction caused by development have become a pressing issue. However, there is fierce conflict between the North and South (and even among developed countries) over how to prevent the adverse effects on ecosystems of global warming, desertification, and marine pollution that have resulted from traditional development methods.

Developing countries claim that the increase in _CO2 concentration, one of the causes of global warming, is the result of industrialization and deforestation that developed countries have promoted since the Industrial Revolution, and they are opposed to developed countries that unilaterally impose environmental protection measures while the wealth gap between the north and the south remains unresolved. India and China insist on comparing " _CO2 emissions per capita." India's annual _CO2 emissions per capita (converted to carbon weight) are 0.19 tons. If this is taken as 1, they claim that China's is 2.7 times, Japan's is 11.8 times, the European average is 13.6 times, and the United States is 30.5 times (1988).

In developing countries, the vicious cycle of population growth and the resulting poverty and hunger is causing a variety of environmental problems. These include the concentration of population in urban areas, the expansion of slums, delays in the development of urban infrastructure such as water supply and sewerage systems, water pollution from domestic wastewater, abandoned garbage, and the spread of epidemics due to these poor living conditions. Furthermore, in rural areas, a vicious cycle of poverty and environmental deterioration is seen, with forests being cut down in search of new farmland, resulting in a loss of water retention capacity and an increased risk of flooding. In order to prevent environmental deterioration, we must address the causes of poverty themselves.

In such cases, in a sense, development is the same as improving the environment. Sewage treatment in slums, air pollution removal, garbage disposal, prevention of soil erosion and flooding, etc. are all part of development and are infrastructure investments. In this sense, development and the environment are two sides of the same coin.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established in 1972 to promote international environmental policies. In the course of its activities up to 1987, it presented the concept of "sustainable development" (development that does not destroy or impair ecological, economic and social foundations) that does not involve environmental destruction and is balanced with environmental protection. To realize this, however, it will be important for developed countries to provide developing countries with technological and financial assistance (including not only government agencies but also companies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs)).

[Hikari Aihara]

Economic and Social Development

In the 1990s, it became clear that the slowdown in economic development was linked to the slowdown in human resources, including education. The United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) Human Development Report 1995 emphasized that in order to solve global hunger and ethnic conflicts, development focused on people is necessary. Specifically, it pointed out the importance of "human-priority areas" such as primary education, public health, and family planning. However, developing countries themselves only allocate a small portion of their budgets to human-priority areas, and the ODA (Official Development Assistance) of developed countries is mainly directed to the development of industrial infrastructure, such as large-scale construction projects, with less than 10% of aid going to this area. It has also been pointed out that military expenditures in developing countries are impeding human-priority development.

[Hikari Aihara]

"In Search of a New Trade Policy - The Prebish Report" edited by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, translated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1964, International Japan Association)" ▽ "In Search of a New Development Strategy - The New Prebish Report" edited by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, translated by Masao Masui (1968, International Japan Association)" ▽ "The Drama of Asia, written by G. Myrdal and supervised translation by Yoichi Itagaki, 2 volumes (1974, Toyo Keizai Shinposha) " ▽ "The North-South Problem, written by Kan Kawada (1977, University of Tokyo Press) " ▽ "South and North: Strategies for Survival, edited by W. Brandt and supervised translation by Haruki Mori (1980, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)" ▽ "South and North: The Collapse of the Third World, written by Yoshihiko Motoyama (1991, Chikuma Library)" ▽ "The North-South Problem: The Path to Resolution, written by Makoto Taniguchi (1993, Simul Publishing)" ▽ "Kawada Kan: International Studies 4" written by Kan Kawada "A Study of the North-South Problem" (1997, Tokyo Shoseki)" ▽ "The Political Economy of the North-South Problem: Global Economy and Developing Countries" by Gerald K. Helleiner, supervised translation by Inaba Morimitsu et al. (1998, Gakubunsha)" ▽ "The World Bank and the North-South Problem" by Homma Masami (2000, Dobunkan Publishing)" ▽ "The New North-South Problem: A Look at the 21st Century from the Perspective of Global Warming" by Sagara Kunio (2000, Fujiwara Shoten)" ▽ "The World Economic System and North-South Relations" by Honda Kenkichi (2001, Shinhyoron)" ▽ "The North-South Problem in the 21st Century: A Challenge in the Age of Globalization" by Taniguchi Makoto (2001, Waseda University Press)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

南北問題ということばを初めて使ったのは、1959年イギリスのロイズ銀行（現ロイズTSB銀行）会長オリバー・フランクスであるといわれている。その意味するところは、第二次世界大戦後十数年たった時点で、世界の動向における中心問題は、もはや資本主義国家群と社会主義国家群の対立をさす東西問題ではなくて、北の富裕な先進工業国と南の貧困な開発途上国との経済的格差を中心とする南北問題である、ということであった。しかし1960年代に入って東西間の緊張が緩和され、南北問題がクローズアップされたものの、1990年代初めのソ連崩壊による東西対決の終結までは、南北問題は東西問題と無縁ではなく、東西両陣営が南の諸国を自国の世界戦略の一環として利用し、自己の陣営に引き入れようとすることなどによって、複雑に絡み合っていた。

［相原　光］

南北の基本的立場

第二次世界大戦後、ヨーロッパ諸国の植民地であったアジア、アフリカ、ラテンアメリカの各国が「政治的独立」を果たし、国際政治の舞台におけるこれら南の諸国の発言権が高まってきたのであるが、南北の経済的格差は、縮小するどころか拡大し、南は「経済的独立」にはほど遠い状態に置かれていた。そして南側諸国は、この経済的格差の解消は戦後の国際経済秩序の構造的改革を通じてしか実現しないと考えていた。

　これに対し、北側の先進資本主義国、とくにアメリカは基本的には自由無差別な市場経済メカニズムに基づく国際経済秩序が正当なシステムであり、またこれはすでに効果的に機能しており、変革の必要がないという立場にたっていた。このように基本的に対立した考え方を基礎として南北が変化していく環境のなかで、力関係も変化しながら、さまざまな交渉を重ねてきているのが現状である。

［相原　光］

開発途上国のディレンマ

第二次世界大戦後の途上国の大半が先進国に食糧、嗜好(しこう)品、工業用原料を供給し、先進国の工業品に市場を提供するという形で、先進国主導の国際分業体制に組み込まれていた。ほとんどが農業国でありながら自国民に十分な主食穀物を供給できず、一つ二つの工業用原料、たとえば麻、ゴムのような農産物の生産に特化（専門化）するというモノカルチュア（単一作物栽培）経済となっていた。「経済的独立」を果たし、南北格差を解消するためには、途上国はこのモノカルチュア経済を脱却し、経済的に多様化――工業化あるいは近代化――する必要があった。しかし、多様化のための設備・食糧を輸入するためには外貨が必要であり、その外貨を獲得するためには伝統的一次産品の輸出に頼らなければならないというディレンマに置かれた。しかしこの一次産品の貿易は長期的にみて、不利な傾向をもっている（一次産品問題）。その理由には、一次産品に対する先進国の需要の伸びが低く、先進国側で農業保護政策が行われているということ、また一次産品の供給は価格の変化に対し硬直的であり、価格が変化してもすぐに生産を調整できないものが多いことなどがあげられる。さらにこれに需要の伸びの低さが加わって、工業品に対する一次産品の相対価格が不利になるように作用するのである。一次産品の輸出は工業国の景気変動の影響を受けて不安定で、これが開発計画や他の産業部門へ波及し、経済的、社会的に望ましくない影響を与える。

　以上のような一次産品経済の長期的停滞や不安定性を脱却するためには、途上国は輸出構造および経済構造の多様化、高度化を図る必要がある。工業化を通じた輸出の多様化もその線に沿ったものだが、先進国の政策がそれに不利に作用する傾向がある。第二次世界大戦後のガット（GATT、関税および貿易に関する一般協定。世界貿易機関＝WTOの前身）を中心とした関税引下げは、先進国にとって関心の高い資本集約的商品を中心に行われ、途上国の主要輸出工業品である繊維、衣類、履物、スポーツ用品などの労働集約的商品の関税は、比較的高い水準のままであった。

　さらに、輸入制限、輸出自主規制、輸入課徴金(かちょうきん)、ダンピング防止税などが、途上国からの工業品の輸出を規制している。たとえば繊維製品は労働集約的で、また大規模な経済を必要とせず、単純な技術で生産できる。しかし同じ繊維部門が先進国でも重要な割合を占めており、さらに地域的に集中している場合が多い。1962年にガットの場で綿製品についての輸入割当の交渉が行われてから、その範囲を人造繊維、ウールと広げ、多角的繊維協定にまで拡大された。

　以上の困難を克服するために、途上国は一次産品の輸出に関しては、先進国の保護政策の撤廃、価格・所得の安定のための国際商品協定の制定、補償融資の実施を要求。また工業品については、工業化のための国内産業保護の権利、技術移転の要求、製品に対する先進国市場へのアクセスの改善、途上国の製品輸出に対する特恵制度などの要求を行った。

　途上国は北へ圧力をかけるために1964年に77か国グループ（G77）を結成し、北との交渉のための南側の政策調整を行った。また事務局をもった国連貿易開発会議（UNCTAD(アンクタッド)）を設立し、これが南の意見の統一に貢献した。UNCTADの成果としては、特恵制度の実現、オイル・ショック時の資源ナショナリズムの圧力を利用した一次産品共通基金（一次産品の価格をあらかじめ定めた範囲内に抑えるための緩衝在庫を含む国際商品協定のため、また途上国における一次産品の研究、マーケティングのための基金。発効は大幅に遅れて1989年6月）の設置があげられる。ただし両者とも途上国側が当初要求したものよりも規模、適用品目の範囲が狭い。なお1980年代以降の先進国の長期的停滞（国内問題優先志向）、冷戦の終結という事態のなかで、国連機関に対する財政的負担への不満もあり、UNCTADに対する風当りも強いが、途上国に関する調査・研究、技術指導やアドバイスをする機能は重視されている。

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南北間・北内部・南内部の格差の拡大

1970年代後半から南の北に対する強い態度が弱まり始めた。それは世界不況の深刻化とともにおこった南の国の間の分極化、南南格差の顕在化による。一方におけるNIES(ニーズ)（新興工業経済地域）の台頭、継続的な成長、他方における石油輸出国と非石油輸出国、後発開発途上国（LDC）との格差の拡大である。いわゆる南南問題の出現である。

　1980年代の10年間、アジアNIESを除いて途上国は経済の停滞、生活水準の低下を経験し、「失われた十年」といわれた。また国連開発計画（UNDP）の「人間開発報告書1996」によると、先進国の経済成長が続くなか、途上国の多くは10年前よりも経済的に後退。富裕と貧困の二極化が世界的に広がっている。この報告では1人当り国民所得が1980年代に比べて後退したのは先進国では3か国だけであるのに対し、途上国では70か国が1960年代よりも低くなっている。世界全体の国民総生産（GNP）は1975～1985年の10年で約4割増加したが、その恩恵を受けたのは一部で、貧しい人々の数は逆に増加した。富裕層と貧困層、先進国と途上国の経済格差がさらに悪化していると分析している。

　UNCTADによると、途上国のなかでも後発開発途上国（LDC）とよばれる国々の国内総生産の成長率は低い数値にとどまっており、1990年代以降はますます悪化している。LDC諸国は世界全体で、1980年代は42か国であったのが、1996年には48か国、人口約6億人となり、2009年には49か国、約7億人となっている。

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環境と開発

近年開発による環境破壊対策が焦眉の急の問題となっている。しかし従来の開発方式から生まれた地球の温暖化、砂漠化、海洋汚染による生態系への悪影響をいかに防止するかについては、南北間では激しい（先進国間でも）対立がある。

　途上国は地球温暖化の原因の一つであるCO₂濃度の増加は産業革命以降、先進国が工業化や森林伐採を進めてきた結果であると主張、南北間の貧富格差が解消されないまま、一方的に環境保護を押し付ける先進国に対し反発している。インドや中国は、「CO₂排出量を人口1人当り」で比較することを主張。インドの1人当りの年間CO₂排出量（炭素重量に換算）は0.19トン。これを1とすれば、中国は2.7倍、日本は11.8倍、ヨーロッパ平均は13.6倍、アメリカは30.5倍（1988）であるという主張である。

　途上国では人口増加とそれに伴う貧困、飢餓との悪循環が、さまざまな環境問題を引き起こしている。都市部への人口集中→スラム街の膨張→上下水道などの都市基盤整備（インフラ整備）の遅れ、生活排水による水質汚濁、ごみの放置、これら劣悪な生活環境による疫病の流行などがそれである。また、農村地帯では新たな開墾地を求めて森林の伐採→保水能力の喪失→洪水の危険増加など、貧困と環境悪化との悪循環の連鎖がみられる。環境の悪化を防ぐためには貧困をもたらす原因そのものに迫らなければならない。

　このような場合、ある意味では開発が環境の改善と同一である。スラムの汚水処理、大気汚染除去、ごみ処理、土壌流出や洪水の防止などは開発の一部であり、インフラ投資である。この意味では開発と環境はコインの両面ということになる。

　1972年国際的な環境政策を推進するため国連環境計画（UNEP）が設立され、1987年までの活動で、環境破壊を伴わない、環境保護とのバランスがとれた「持続可能な開発」（生態学的、経済的、社会的基盤を破壊したり傷めない開発）という概念が呈示されたが、その実現のためには、先進国の技術、資金面での途上国への援助（政府機関だけでなく企業、非政府組織NGOを含む）が重要となろう。

［相原　光］

経済開発と社会開発

1990年代に入り、経済開発の遅れが、教育などの人的資源の遅れと関連していることが注目されるようになった。国連開発計画（UNDP）の「人間開発報告書1995」は、地球規模の飢餓や民族紛争などを解決するには、人間に焦点をあてた開発が必要なことを強調。具体的には初等教育や公衆衛生、家族計画などの「人間優先分野」の重要性を指摘している。しかし途上国自身は、わずかな予算しか人間優先分野に振り向けていないし、先進国のODA（政府開発援助）もおもに大規模建設プロジェクトといった産業基盤の整備などに向けられ、この分野への援助は10％にも満たない。また途上国の軍事費が人間優先の開発を妨げていることも指摘されている。

［相原　光］

『国連貿易開発会議編、外務省訳『新しい貿易政策を求めて――プレビッシュ報告』（1964・国際日本協会）』▽『国連貿易開発会議編、正井正夫訳『新しい開発戦略を求めて――新プレビッシュ報告』（1968・国際日本協会）』▽『G・ミュルダール著、板垣与一監訳『アジアのドラマ』全2冊（1974・東洋経済新報社）』▽『川田侃著『南北問題』（1977・東京大学出版会）』▽『W・ブラント編、森治樹監訳『南と北――生存のための戦略』（1980・日本経済新聞社）』▽『本山美彦著『南と北　崩れ行く第三世界』（1991・ちくまライブラリー）』▽『谷口誠著『南北問題――解決への道』（1993・サイマル出版会）』▽『川田侃著『川田侃・国際学4　南北問題研究』（1997・東京書籍）』▽『ジェラルド・K・ヘライナー著、稲葉守満ほか監訳『南北問題の政治経済学――グローバル経済と発展途上国』（1998・学文社）』▽『本間雅美著『世界銀行と南北問題』（2000・同文舘出版）』▽『相良邦夫著『新・南北問題――地球温暖化からみた二十一世紀の構図』（2000・藤原書店）』▽『本多健吉著『世界経済システムと南北関係』（2001・新評論）』▽『谷口誠著『21世紀の南北問題――グローバル化時代の挑戦』（2001・早稲田大学出版部）』