Chinese Art
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China is a multi-ethnic country made up of over 50 ethnic groups, but it has been the Han people who have played the leading role in its history. Today, the Great Wall that stretches along the northern border of the country marked the northern limit of agriculture in ancient times and was a line of defense against foreign ethnic groups in the north, but China's history over the past several thousand years can in fact be described as a history of conflict between forces from the north and the south. Powerful nomadic tribes that arose in the north of China often crossed the Great Wall and headed south, sometimes building powerful dynasties of conquest and in some cases, such as the Yuan and Qing dynasties, ruling over the Han people for long periods of time, but it was always the Han people who held the cultural superiority. And what must be emphasized in the history of Chinese culture is the relationship between East and West, rather than the relationship between North and South, because Western cultures such as India, Persia, Greece, Rome, and Egypt had a tremendous influence on the formation of Chinese culture. If we were to compare Chinese art to an elegantly woven brocade, the warp would be the traditional art unique to China, and the weft would be the art imported from the West. When Western culture, the weft, was strongly introduced, the patterns became extremely complex, colorful, and varied, and when the influence of the West weakened, the unique colors of the Han people, the warp, became more prominent. There have been many influences from the West since ancient times, the most prominent of which was Buddhism, and the ability to assimilate and absorb it and develop it into something unique was amazing. The Buddhist culture reorganized in China would go on to have a decisive influence on the art of neighboring countries, such as Japan and Korea. [Rei Yoshimura] Painted pottery culture and black pottery cultureThe first prominent artistic activity in China is the painted pottery culture. Thousands of years ago, the ancestors of the Han people who migrated to the Yellow River basin in Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan and other provinces used their exceptional talents to create beautifully shaped earthenware - painted pottery. This is hand-made earthenware with red, black and white spiral and wavy patterns on the surface. It was discovered in 1921 by Swedish geologist J. G. Anderson in Yangshao Village, Mianchi County, Henan Province, and is therefore known as the Yangshao culture. Along with intricately polished stone tools, crude grey-brown steamers and tripods have also been excavated, indicating that the people were already engaged in farming and animal husbandry. Since this first discovery, there has been a wealth of information available, and it has become clear that the painted pottery culture, which is widespread in the middle and upper reaches of the Yellow River, developed into the Yangshao culture, Dawenkou culture, and Majiayao culture. Similar pottery has also been unearthed in Western Asia, so the prevailing theory is that it originated under Western influence, but many Chinese scholars support the theory that it originated in China independently and developed independently. In 1954, the remains of ancient dwellings and cemeteries thought to be from the late Yangshao culture were discovered in Banpo Village on the eastern outskirts of Xi'an, and a large number of circular and square architectural sites and agricultural and hunting tools were excavated. Part of the remains is preserved as it is in the Banpo Museum, and the painted pottery unearthed in Banpo has attracted attention as a primitive painting with a simple atmosphere, with fish and human faces drawn in black lines. The black pottery culture emerged after this painted pottery. Black pottery is a jet-black earthenware with a fine grain and a beautiful luster, and is sometimes made on a potter's wheel. It is thin, lightweight, and surprisingly intricate. It is also called the Longshan culture because it was discovered in 1931 in Longshan Town near Jinan, Shandong Province, but it is mainly distributed in Shandong, Henan, Hebei Province, and the Liaodong Peninsula. Black pottery has more complex shapes than painted pottery, and the appearance of unique earthenware with a tripod like the one in the picture and a handle with a spout sticking out at an angle indicates that there was already a fairly advanced culture. Today, there is growing interest in the existence of the Xia Dynasty, which preceded the Shang Dynasty, and many scholars have pointed to the site of a royal palace discovered in Erlitou, Yanshi County, Henan Province, as a possible candidate. How the Longshan culture, which includes black pottery, is linked to the Xia dynasty is a topic for future research. Archaeologists are also paying attention to the Hemudu site in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, which proves that wet rice cultivation has been practiced in the Yangtze River basin since ancient times. [Rei Yoshimura] Yin and Zhou dynastiesThe Yin and Zhou dynasties succeeded the Longshan culture and flourished mainly in the Yellow River basin, but the Bronze Age culture had already reached a highly developed stage. Zhengzhou city in Henan province is believed to be the capital of the early Yin period, and has a vast city wall measuring 1.7 to 2 kilometers on each side, where the remains of workshops containing crude bronze tools and bone and horn tools have been discovered. The Yin Ruins in Xiaotun village on the west outskirts of Anyang city in Henan province was the capital of the late Yin period, and systematic excavation surveys have been conducted continuously since the beginning of the 20th century. On the south bank of the large meandering Huan River, the architectural sites of the royal palace and ancestral temple have been found, and numerous oracle bone fragments have been excavated, while on the north bank of the Huan River, in the northwest of Houjiazhuang, more than ten large tombs with flat or medium-sized plans have been excavated. These large tombs shocked the world with the dozens of bodies of those who had martyred themselves or been decapitated, but they have also unearthed a large number of huge bronze artifacts that seem to symbolize the dynasty's immense power. In recent years, a medium-sized tomb was discovered intact in Xiaotun Village, where numerous bronze artifacts bearing the inscription "Fu Hao" have been unearthed. Fu Hao is thought to have been the queen of the 22nd king, Wu Ding. The Zhou dynasty destroyed the Yin dynasty around 1028 BC. It was founded in Qishan, Shaanxi Province, and had its capital in Zongzhou, on the western outskirts of Xi'an. During the reign of King Cheng, another capital called Chengzhou was built in Luoyang, and powerful royal families and nobles were appointed feudal lords in various regions. Zhou ruins are found in areas such as Liaoning and Guangdong, and are found throughout China, proving that the culture of the central region had already spread to the provinces at an early stage. As mentioned earlier, the Shang and Zhou periods were the time when the Bronze Age culture reached its climax. The shapes of bronze vessels were extremely diverse, and when classified by their uses, Ding, Li, and Xian were vessels for boiling food, Gui and Dou were vessels for serving food, Shaku, Zhu, and He were vessels for heating wine, Zun, You, Lai, Hu, and Fang were vessels for serving wine, Gu and Shi were vessels for drinking wine, and Pan, Jian, Yu, and Hu were vessels for serving water. The inscriptions on bronze vessels from the Shang Dynasty were at most pictorial characters engraved on them, but some of the inscriptions from the Zhou Dynasty were quite lengthy, allowing us to learn more about the origins of their production. According to this, all bronze vessels were made for the purpose of worshiping ancestors, and they displayed the dignity of emperors and aristocrats, and strongly asserted that their honor and privileges were hereditary. This is why the shapes and designs of bronze vessels have a solemn and dignified atmosphere, and the surfaces of the vessels are decorated with monsters such as taotie and dragon patterns, as well as bird and animal patterns such as owls, tigers, and snakes, and the spaces between the main patterns are filled with countless fine, spiral-shaped lightning patterns, which, combined with the beauty of antique colors such as verdigris and reddish purple, create a unique world of beauty. As for pottery, crude pottery called ash pottery was used as general household utensils, but there was also celadon-style pottery that used glazes. In particular, the Yin Dynasty attracts attention for its pure white, high-quality earthenware known as white pottery, but the stratigraphic relationships of the strata have proven that there were three major stages of development: from the painted pottery culture to the black pottery culture and then to the white pottery culture. In addition to fibers such as hemp, fur and silk were also used for clothing. Accessories included hairpins, combs, necklaces, bracelets, and beautiful jewels in the shape of fish, birds, and animals, and it is known that the techniques of inlay and lacquer painting were already at a high level. [Rei Yoshimura] Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States PeriodThe Zhou dynasty, which ruled over a wide area of China, centered on the Yellow River basin, was destroyed in 770 BC when its base, Zongzhou, was invaded from the north by the Kenrong. At this time, King Ping of the Zhou dynasty moved east to Luoyang, and the dynasty narrowly escaped the threat of destruction. The large amount of Western Zhou bronze artifacts discovered in 1960 in the areas of Qishan and Fufeng counties in Shaanxi Province indicates that the Kenrong's advance was rapid. The Zhou dynasty is divided into the Western Zhou period before the eastward movement of Luoyang and the Eastern Zhou period afterwards, or the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period. The Spring and Autumn Period is divided into the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, with the dividing line being 403 BC, when Jin split into three states: Zhao, Wei, and Han. At the end of the Western Zhou period, as the dynasty declined, bronze vessels also lost their strength. Elaborate patterns became increasingly crude, but this trend remained essentially unchanged until the first half of the Spring and Autumn period. Naturally, many of the bronze vessels excavated during the Spring and Autumn period came from the feudal lords. From the mid-Spring and Autumn period onwards, changes began to appear in the vessels' shapes and patterns, perhaps reflecting the growing power of the feudal lords. Square jars and gui vessels with plate-like protrusions on the tops of their lids are one of the characteristics of bronze vessels from this period. In terms of patterns, animal faces such as those found on Taotie vessels became less common, and instead simplified hidden inscription patterns and Banryu and Banchi patterns with reduced component units became mainstream. This is because the bronze vessels produced in the various princely states from the end of the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period strayed from the traditions of the Zhou Dynasty, lost their original meaning as ceremonial or ritual vessels, and came to be considered mere treasures, and the vessel shapes and designs changed in a variety of ways, with animal motifs influenced by northern nomadic tribes, geometric patterns traditionally handed down in the Yangtze River basin, and depictions of people's lives being expressed using inlay techniques on thin, simple vessels. In 1974, the mausoleum of the first king of the small Baidi nation of Zhongshan (who ascended to the throne in 323 BC) was excavated along the Hutuo River in Pingshan County, Hebei Province, and the level of perfection seen in the group of bronze vessels excavated, including a gold and silver inlaid dragon and phoenix design, a folding screen pedestal, and a square jar with cloud motifs, represents the pinnacle of bronze art. Other finds include the Zhaoyuetu (Pleistocene map), a design for the tomb made of gold inlaid on copper plate, glossy black pottery decorated with dynamic patterns, and a wide variety of jade objects. Some of these items are common to other Warring States tombs in the Yellow River basin, but their workmanship shows the unique aesthetic sense of the Baidi people, who were active among the various princely states, even though they were a small nation. [Rei Yoshimura] Qin DynastyIn 306 BCE, King Zhaoxiang ascended to the throne in the northwestern border state of Qin. King Zhaoxiang's great-grandson, King Zheng of Qin, who later became the First Emperor, ascended to the throne in 247 BCE at the age of 13. Immediately after ascending to the throne, he began construction of the First Emperor's Mausoleum at Lishan. In 221 BCE, Qin achieved unification of the world, but he gave himself the title of Emperor and unified weights and measures, currency, writing style, and vehicle width. To demonstrate the thorough implementation of these systems and the dignity of the emperor, Shi Huang toured the country and left stone inscriptions in unified seal script in various places. He also confiscated civilian weapons and brought them to the capital, Xianyang, where he recast them into 12 30-ton statues and musical instruments called bells and chimes. To defend against the Xiongnu in the north, they linked the northern Great Walls built by Yan and Zhao to build a Great Great Wall stretching over 10,000 li. In 212 BC, construction began on the Epang Palace on the south bank of the Wei River. The two-story Epang Palace measured 690 meters east to west and 115 meters north to south, and was said to have been able to seat 10,000 people on the upper floor. A two-story pavilion road stretched north and south from this palace, leading to the top of Nanshan Mountain in the south and across the Wei River to the Xianyang Palace in the north. In recent years, the Epang Palace has been restored based on an investigation of its rammed earth foundation, and excavations of the Xianyang Palace have also progressed, unearthing small fragments of a mural depicting several horses. In 1974, excavations began on the Terracotta Warriors Pit in Lishan. Three of these pits were discovered about two kilometers east of the tomb of the First Emperor, and military figurines were buried inside the pits in a formation that protected the entire mausoleum from the outside. Excavated items include 20 wooden chariots, 100 ceramic horses, 29 ceramic cavalry soldiers, 1,400 ceramic warrior figurines, more than 10,000 bronze weapons, and more than 10,000 figurines, including those yet to be excavated. All of these are life-size and extremely realistic, and all of the weapons are real. The intricacy and enormous scale of these terracotta warriors are astonishing, but they only make up a small part of the mausoleum. The tomb was destroyed by Xiang Yu's army in 206 BC, but in addition to the vases, numerous other relics and ruins have been excavated in and around the park. In 1980, two half-scale bronze chariots and horses were discovered on the west side of the mound, and people were astonished by their exquisite casting techniques and the elegant shape of the chariot covers. In the past, Qin's place in the history of art was largely unknown, but recent excavations at the Mausoleum of the First Emperor and the Xianyang Palace have reaffirmed its powerful realism, drawing public attention. [Rei Yoshimura] Han DynastyThe Han dynasty was divided into the Early Western Han (202 BC - 8 AD) and the Late Eastern Han (25 AD - 220 AD) (with the Xin dynasty established by Wang Mang after seizing the country in between), with the Western Han's capital at Chang'an in Shaanxi and the Eastern Han's at Luoyang. The regional cultures that had matured in various places from the Yin and Zhou dynasties through the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period were consolidated and organized under this stable, long-lasting unified dynasty, forming and establishing Han culture. This Han culture had a huge impact on many fields in China thereafter, but also in art history the significance of Han art is enormous, and when talking about art unique to China, it is safe to say that it is a unique artistic style that was formed during the Han dynasty. At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, the Han Dynasty was constantly fighting with the Xiongnu in the north, but under Emperor Wu, whose national power had increased, the Han Dynasty defeated the Xiongnu, and the road to the Western Regions opened by the special envoy Zhang Qian made it possible to launch an expedition to Dayuan. After this expedition, trade with Western countries flourished, and a large amount of Western cultural artifacts flowed into the country. In 1968 and 1972, two large, unlooted tombs from the Western Han Dynasty were excavated, drawing much attention. One was a cliff tomb discovered at the top of Lingshan Mountain in the western outskirts of Mancheng County, Hebei Province, and belonged to Emperor Wu's half-brother, King Zhongshan Liu Sheng, and his wife Dou Wan. These are known as Mancheng Han Tombs No. 1 and No. 2. Liu Sheng and Dou Wan are the highest-ranking figures among the Han tombs currently being excavated, and their grave goods were appropriate for this position. In addition to luxurious items made using intricate casting and inlay techniques, such as the Changxin Palace lantern, the gold-inlaid Boshan furnace, and the gold and silver-inlaid bronze bell with bird-shaped seal script, a complete gold-laced jade robe was also unearthed. This is a costume made of jade sheets sewn together with pure gold wire to cover the entire body of the corpse; several fragments of bronze and silver jade garments have been excavated, but this is the first time that a gold jade garment has been discovered. Another large tomb is a set of three pit tombs in wooden coffins excavated at Mawangdui, on the eastern outskirts of Changsha, Hunan Province. Tomb No. 1 is famous for the well-preserved remains it unearthed, as it was completely sealed after construction. The grave goods were also well preserved, and a large number of lacquerware, silk textiles, wooden Ming ware, coffins, bamboo slips, silk scrolls, and silk paintings, which are rarely found even in fragments, were excavated in almost perfect condition. Of the four coffins excavated, the lacquer paintings on the second and third coffins and the silk painting called Hii that was placed on top of the coffins are particularly noteworthy. The second coffin features a black background with a flowing colored cloud pattern, with a vivid depiction of a mysterious god or immortal toying with a snake between them. The third coffin has a vermilion background, and each side is vividly painted with dragons, tigers, deers on immortal mountains, and twin dragons piercing a wall. The non-clothing was placed on top of the inner coffin in which the body had been placed, and is a T-shaped silk painting with a banner-like structure of about 2 meters, with the sun, moon, and twin dragons painted on the left and right sleeves, and along the center line from top to bottom, a female figure with a snake's tail, a bell, a gate god, an owl, a statue of the tomb's owner, twin dragons piercing a wall, a bird with a human face, a scene of food being offered, and at the bottom, sumo wrestlers and a monster fish supporting them. Although many aspects of its meaning are unclear, it must have been painted based on legends and myths that were passed down in the state of Chu, and is a valuable excavated item that conveys the culture and standard of painting at the time. The vertical wooden coffin tomb, which had been the tomb system since the Yin and Zhou dynasties, gradually changed after the Mausoleum of the First Emperor, mainly in the Central Plains, and by the end of the Western Han dynasty, horizontal underground palaces became mainstream. The tomb owner used the interior of the tomb as a place to live after death, decorated the interior to imitate an above-ground palace, and buried daily necessities, household goods, food, and even a toilet with him. He also painted scenes from his life on the tomb walls, hoping that they would continue in the afterlife. In other words, the life of the time is projected in a different form inside the tomb. During the Western Han dynasty, the tomb of Bu Qianqiu in Luoyang was excavated, and during the Later Han dynasty, the Han Tomb No. 1 in Wangdu County, Hebei Province, the Han Tomb in Helingor, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and the Han Tomb in Dahuting, Mi County, Henan Province were excavated, giving a glimpse of some of the paintings of the time. In addition, stone images were made mainly in Shandong and Henan provinces. Picture stones are architectural stones with carved lines or thin reliefs on the surface that depict stories, legends, myths, and scenes from daily life, and many of them date back to the Later Han Dynasty. Famous examples include the stone coffin in Yinan County, the stone chamber at Xiaotang Mountain in Feicheng County, the stone chamber at Wu's shrine in Jiaxiang County, and the remains of the Lingguang Hall in Lucheng, Qufu County, in Shandong Province, and the Feng Huan Stone Que in Qu County and the Gaoyi Stone Que in Ya'an County in Sichuan Province. In Henan Province, many picture stone tombs were excavated in the 1960s, mainly in Nanyang City, and about 800 of them are housed in the Nanyang Chinese Painting Museum, and these form a style known as Nanyang picture stone. Since pictorial stones belonging to this type have been excavated from tombs dating from the Western Han to Wang Mang periods in Xindian, Tanghe County, it has been confirmed that the Nanyang pictorial stones date back to the Western Han period. A huge number of ceramic figurines have been excavated as grave goods, mainly from the Later Han Dynasty. The figurines that came to light before the liberation were extremely difficult to study because their origins were unknown, but since the liberation, scientific archaeological surveys have been conducted, making it possible to classify them by their origins and determine their precise ages. Several bronze figurines have also been excavated from the Leitai Han Tomb in Wuwei County, Gansu Province. Of these, the horse riding a flying swallow is a particularly outstanding piece. Bronze mirrors placed around the corpses have been known since before the Warring States period, but the patterns on the backs of the mirrors became more decorative during this period, and they became even more diverse, including mirrors with floral patterns on the inside, mirrors with four gods, and mirrors with square grids. Among the stone sculptures placed in the tombs, the giant stone beast in the tomb of General Huo Qubing during the reign of Emperor Wu is well known. [Rei Yoshimura] The Northern and Southern Courts PeriodAfter the fall of the Han dynasty, the three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu emerged, with Wei's capital in Luoyang, Henan Province, Shu's in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, and Wu's in Jianye (Nanjing), Jiangsu Province, which led to a remarkable rise in the culture of Shu and Jiangnan. The Wei dynasty was replaced by the Jin dynasty, which unified the three states in 280 AD and established a dynasty, but this was also divided into the Western Jin dynasty (265-316) and the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420), with the former's capital in Luoyang and the latter's capital in Jiankang, Jiangsu Province. The dynasties that followed were the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen dynasties, known as the Southern Dynasties, while the Northern Dynasties were the various dynasties in northern China, beginning with the Northern Wei dynasty, which unified northern China, and continuing through the Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou dynasties. The period of about 370 years from the fall of the Han dynasty until the Sui dynasty, which emerged from the Northern Zhou dynasty, defeated the Chen dynasty and unified the country (589), is known as the Wei-Jin-Northern and Southern Dynasties period. It was during the late Western Han and Eastern Han periods that Buddhism was introduced to China via the Silk Road, a trade route with the West that was opened under the reign of Emperor Wu of the Former Han. Buddhism, which was flourishing in India at the time, was merely one of the new foreign religions in China, and records show that the earliest Buddha statues were generally enshrined alongside statues of Laozi and the like. In other words, it can be said that from the time they were introduced to China, Buddha statues were accepted into China's unique religious culture and nurtured there. Shrines and ceremonies for enshrining Buddha statues were very much in the Chinese style, but it is thought that the models for the creation of Buddha statues were probably small statues made in Gandhara. Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Buddhist sects were organised and Buddhist scriptures were translated, but it was not until the Northern and Southern Dynasties that Buddhist art really took root in social life. After the fall of the Han dynasty, the centre of Buddhism shifted from Luoyang to Jiankang in the Eastern Jin dynasty, and towards the end of the Eastern Jin dynasty, the sculptor Zai Ando brought about a major revolution in the style of Buddhist statues. His Buddhist statues were distinctively Chinese, with facial features that suited the tastes of the Han people and exaggerated clothing patterns. As a result of this transformation, Jiankang Buddhist art, including Buddhist statues, became entirely Chinese in style, and this became mainstream thereafter. Meanwhile, a new flow of Buddhist art from the West was pouring into the Northern Wei dynasty, which had no culture of its own. It was influenced by the Gupta art of India, which had spread to Central Asia at the time, and its Buddhist statues were characterized by round faces, striking eyes, and exaggerated, imposing bodies that were visible through thin clothing. This style had already reached Liangzhou, and as soon as the Northern Wei dynasty annexed Northern Liang, it flowed into the capital of Pingcheng (Datong, Shanxi Province) like a dam had opened. It can be said that the early Dunhuang Grottoes, Bingling Temple Grottoes, Maijishan Grottoes, and Yungang Grottoes were all built as part of this flow of Western style moving eastward. The Yungang Grottoes preserve a large number of Buddhist statues from that time. These caves were built in 460 by the monk Tanyao, a native of Northern Liang and the supreme leader of the Northern Wei Buddhist world, with the imperial permission of Emperor Wencheng. The earliest five large caves are called the Tanyao Five Grottoes. Inside these five caves are carved large statues measuring over 10 meters, said to depict the five emperors starting with Taizu. By the time the dynasty moved to Luoyang in 494, 42 caves had been built. After the capital was moved, a cave temple was also built in Longmen, on the outskirts of Luoyang, but from this time onwards, the patrons of Northern Wei Buddhism chose a new artistic style. In other words, they abandoned the Northern Liang-style Buddhist statue style that had been popular mainly in Datong until then, and adopted the Han Buddhist style that had been used in Jiankang in the Southern Dynasty. This choice was part of the policy of Sinicization that was implemented in all areas of the Northern Wei dynasty at that time. The Buddhism that emerged in Luoyang during the Northern Wei Dynasty can be called the first golden age of Chinese Buddhism, and flourished under the influence of Buddhist art from the Southern Dynasties, Qi, and Liang dynasties. However, in both Jiankang and Luoyang, the Buddhist temples and statues that had once thrived were quickly lost in fires of war. Apart from Buddhist art, the development of painting in the Southern Dynasties is particularly noteworthy. With the appearance of Gu Kaizhi in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, painting took on a more advanced technique and artistic quality. His works, the Scroll of the Lady's Love and Scroll of the Luo Gods, are copies made by later generations, but they have been passed down. Calligraphy, which was highly developed by father and son Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi in the second half of the 4th century, also contributed greatly to the development of painting. Furthermore, landscape painting was founded by Zong Bing and Wang Wei in the early 5th century, and by the middle of the 6th century, the "Six Laws," which could be said to be a standard for criticizing painting, were theorized in Xie He's "Inventory of Ancient Paintings." All of them were literati painters who were also skilled in calligraphy, literature, and music, but there were also professional painters active in the imperial court, such as Lu Tanwei of the Song Dynasty and Zhang Sengyao of the Liang Dynasty. Zhang Sengyao in particular produced many Buddhist paintings using simple brushstrokes and three-dimensional expression through shading, which became the model for Buddhist painting in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Until recently, very few remains of paintings from the Northern and Southern Dynasties were available, and we could only imagine a part of them from later documents. However, in the 1960s, excavations of the Southern Dynasties tombs on the outskirts of Nanjing unearthed many brick paintings, and in recent years, the tomb of Lou Rui of the Northern Qi Dynasty on the outskirts of Taiyuan City and the tomb of Princess Ru Gu of the Eastern Wei Dynasty in Ci County, Hebei Province, have revealed colorful murals that have attracted attention. These are valuable discoveries in understanding the art of the Northern and Southern Dynasties in concrete terms. [Rei Yoshimura] Sui and Tang dynastiesThe Sui Emperor Wen unified the North and South (589), established the capital in Chang'an, and made Luoyang the Eastern Capital, but was overthrown by the second Emperor Yang. Among the warlords, Li Yuan of Taiyuan (the first emperor of the Tang Dynasty) emerged, captured Chang'an, and became emperor in 618. His son Li Shimin (Taizong) then ascended to the throne in 626, and adopted an aggressive foreign policy, establishing the hegemony of the Great Tang Empire throughout Asia, with its capital, Chang'an, becoming the world's number one international city. As a result, Tang culture took on an international flavor in every aspect, and art came to be strongly influenced by the West. In particular, Buddhist art was greatly stimulated by the Indian scriptures, Buddhist paintings, and sculptures brought back by Xuanzang when he returned to China in 645. Additionally, the Buddhist iconography that Wang Xuance and his party copied from various places in India and brought back with them from 643 onwards became models for Buddhist statues and paintings of the time, ushering in a second period of Buddhism's prosperity. Many temples were built in Chang'an and Luoyang, and countless Buddhist murals were painted on the walls. According to Zhang Yanyuan's "Records of Famous Paintings of the Past," the people who were active in this field at the time were the two major schools of painting: the Cao school, which descended from Cao Zhongda of the Northern Qi Dynasty, the Zhang school, which descended from Zhang Sengyao of the Southern Dynasties, and Yuchi Yiseng from Yutian. During the Kaiyuan period of Emperor Xuanzong (713-741), the Wu school became the mainstream of temple murals with the emergence of Wu Daoxuan, who was known as the master of painting. He is said to have drawn sharp ink lines with strong, fast brushstrokes, creating powerful white paintings. All of these Tang Dynasty murals have been lost, but some of their origins can be seen in the murals in the Golden Hall of Horyu-ji Temple in Nara and in the Dunhuang Grottoes. The Dunhuang Grottoes were excavated in the middle of the 4th century on cliffs in the southeast of Mingsha Mountain in Dunhuang County, Gansu Province. About 500 caves remain, half of which date from the Tang Dynasty. As the rock surfaces of the caves are fragile, most of the remains are clay statues and murals, but thanks to the dry climate and remote location, they are in extremely good condition. In 1907, the British explorer Stein discovered and removed a large number of Buddhist paintings from the Tang to Song dynasties, along with many Buddhist scriptures and documents. These are currently kept in the British Museum in London. The remains of Tang Dynasty carvings include embossed cave temples that remain in various places, but the Longmen Caves on the outskirts of Luoyang and the Tenryuzan Caves on the outskirts of Taiyuan are particularly important. In 675, at Gaojong's request, the Virushana Great Buddha, the main image of the Bengalsian Temple Cave, exceeding 17 meters. This Great Buddha is a beautiful Buddha statue that represents the peak of the history of Chinese sculpture, and is clearly recognized as an Indian influence. The Tenryuzan Caves were also destroyed, and the Buddha statues have been dispersed all over the world, but they have a distinctive style of thin flowing lines of clothing, wide chest and toned waist. Many mural tombs excavated in recent years are useful for reference in regards to the paintings and murals that adorn the court and the houses of nobles. Among them, the murals of Prince Yong Tai, Prince Shakai, and Prince Yidoku's tombs convey the emotion of murals from the early 8th century thanks to their excellent skills and abundant paintership. になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. They later became the founder of Hokushu Landsui paintings, a technique known as Kinpeki Sansui, using detailed lines and strong colors. Wang Wei has a style of painting that rivals this, but his paintings are aimed at pure and quiet nature, just like his natural poems. The most international art of the time was crafts. In 1970, in Hujia Village, Xi'an City, about 1,000 treasures, including gold and silverware and jadeware, were discovered in large jars. These were influenced by the Sassanid Persia, and many of them are similar to those passed down in Shosoin, in our country. Ming utensils buried in the tombs are filled with a large glaze of three colors, called Tang Sansha, but there are many exotic statues, such as the Hujin and Kunlong, which draw reefs. The mirrors also liked the abstract patterns that were made up to the previous generation, exotic patterns with gorgeous flowers and parrots, and unique Western patterns such as the Sea Grape Mirror. In this way, Tang Dynasty art had a strong international character, influenced by the West, and was full of vibrantness, but after the Anshi Rebellion of 755-763, it began to fade with the decline of the dynasty, and it quickly descended from the oppression of Buddhism in 845. [Rei Yoshimura] Five dynasties and the Song dynastyWhen the Tang Dynasty was destroyed in 907, a period of warfare, known as the Five and Ten Kingdoms. The Five Dynasty was a kingdom that rose to the north of China and was founded in five dynasties (907-960): the Ling, the Ling Tang, the Later Jin Dynasty, the Later Han Dynasty, and the Third Zhou Zhou, and the Ten Kingdoms were kingdoms that emerged in various places, including the Former Shu, the Later Shu, the South Tang Dynasty, Wu, Nanjing, Min, Chu, the South Han Dynasty, and the North Han Dynasty. This division continued until the Song Dynasty achieved unification in 960. In the Mongolia, after the destruction of the Tang Dynasty, the Liao of the Kytan people emerged, and spread its power from Goryeo to the East and Central Asia to Persia to the West. However, in 1115, the Jushi-san, who had great power in the Tohoku region, allied with the Song Dynasty to defeat the Liao and instead built gold. In 1126, the Kim stormed into the capital of the Song Dynasty, the Benkei (Kaifeng), the capital of the Song Dynasty, and the Emperor Huizong and others were captured, and the Song Dynasty was temporarily destroyed. King Kang, who fled at this time, revived the dynasty in Nanjing, and later became the capital in Lin'an (Hangzhou). The Song Dynasty was called the Northern Song Dynasty and the Hangzhou Dynasty was called the Southern Song Dynasty. [Rei Yoshimura] Five generationsThis era was a unique era in which the Tang culture that was dispersed throughout the country were active under the powers of local authorities, and in Shu there were the Huang Yi, the flower and bird paintings, and the Zengetsu Daishi Kankyu and Shi Shi, who were unique figure painters. In the South Tang Dynasty, when the first painting house was created, there were the figure paintings, Shubun Zhong, Gu Zhong, Dong Yuan, the landscape paintings, and the giants, and Xu Xi, the flower and bird paintings. The Buddhist culture that occurred in Liao also retains the oldest wooden buildings in China, the Dokurakuji Temple in Zi County, Hebei Province, and the Kegonji Temple in Datong and Shimo-Kegonji Temple in Shanxi Province. Currently, Shimo-Kegonji Temple is home to the Plastic Statues from Liao to the First of the Kin. In Dunhuang, in the northwest, the Cao clan maintains stable government, and many caves are donated to them, and the 61st Cave is the largest. [Rei Yoshimura] SongThe Song era was a period in which China's unique culture was matured based on the awareness of individuality, and in the history of art, the progress of painting and ceramics was particularly noteworthy. In painting, there were two trends: real-life style paintings that were carried out at the kingdom, which values the finest and formality, and literary paintings that freely express individuality with ink without being bound by form. The Song architecture showed great development, with the creation and instruction of the kingdom himself at the kingdom when Huizong of the Northern Song Dynasty, Tenzi himself created and taught the kingdom. The early landscape painters of the Northern Song Priest included Yen Wengki, Gao Chemyi, Guangdong, Fan Lang, Dong Yuan, Giang, Guo Xi, and Ma Ben. In flower and bird painting, Huang Yi Yi and Huang Yi Ling, who are from Shu, used colours to establish the Huang ward, painted with shading and shading lines, and Xu Xi's son Xu Shusi established the Xu ward, painted mainly with shading. Then there were Wu Yu and his disciple Emperor Huizong. Outside the shrine, landscape painters included Li Cheng, who was said to be the first of the Song Dynasty, Qi Do Ning, who was under his lineage, Song Di, the founder of the Eight Scenes of Xiang Xiang, Beifutsu and Yae Tou Jin, a high-ranking official and skilled in poetry writing, Jean Ding and Yae Tou Jin, a high-ranking official and skilled in poetry writing, Jean Ding and Bamboo paintings, Suu, who was also a well-known calligrapher, Hua Guang Zhongjin, who wrote Sumi plum paintings, and Li Lyumin, a horse painting in white drawings. になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. However, as the times progressed, the artisans also fell into formalism, and at the end of the Southern Song Dynasty, literary painting became a thriving success. Literature had an idealistic tendency to express one's personality using the shades of ink. In Mulan, Zheng Si-shou of the daffodil, and in the painting dragon, Chen Yong waving his arms using a unique technique. For Zen monks, several monks named Nikkan-shion of the Agate Temple of the West Lake, Mokken of the Lott Temple of the West Lake, and Gyokukan of the Yukang Temple of the West Lake, were active in Hangzhou, and Chinese ink painting reached its peak. Song's Buddhist sculptures have disappeared from the influence of the west, making them delicate and more realistic. The wooden carvings that were thriving during the Uifuku period of the Northern Song Dynasty include excellent remains, such as statues of Kannon and statues of Shaka, which were introduced to Seiryoji Temple in Kyoto, but they do not have the solemn and sacred taste that were seen in the Tang Dynasty, and many of them have become so vulgar, and it can be said that there are almost no works to be seen after the Southern Song Dynasty. Song's ceramics were the period of completion of Chinese ceramics. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the main production of white porcelain was made mainly by the Eschung kiln in Hebei Province, and the celadon kiln was mainly by the Eschung kiln in Zhejiang Province, the Lūzhou kiln in Henan Province, and the Kyung kiln in the suburbs of Hangzhou, but as the dynasty was shifted south, various official kilns were opened near Hangzhou. In Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, blue-white porcelain, known as Xiangqing, was produced, and in the Jian kiln in Fujian Province, black glaze tea bowls called Tianmoku were produced in Japan. In addition to this, common people's works were also created with patterns drawn by slain, which was called Egolai, which was called Egolai, in Zhenzhou kiln in Henan Province and Xiwu kiln in Henan Province. Among the arts of the Song Dynasty, there are "The Masterpiece of Yizhou" from the Huang Reign, which records the biographies of painters from the Five Edzhou painters of the Tang Dynasty, the "Lin Quan Gaochi" by Guo Xi and Guo Si father and son, and the "Sennagafu" from the catalogue of the painting axis held by Huizong. [Rei Yoshimura] Yuan Dynastyになったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. The paintings of the kingdom declined, and the paintings of reignist literary figures rose to great popularity. They included Sensen, a king of liberal arts who was active as liberal figures in the Song Dynasty, served as a high-ranking official, and Zhao Meng Xi, who was a leader of the Restoration Movement. Then, at the end of Yuan, four landlords appeared after him. Huang Gong Wang of Pingyuan, a revivalist king, Meng of Resurrection, Zhao, who was from the famous Wuxi clan and lived his life as a poetry and painting in the field, and Gochin, who was an easy man and skilled fine ink bamboo and ink flower. They sought to express themselves in ideal nature, such as Dong Yuan and Kyonen, who were the five generations of the Tang Dynasty, and tried to express themselves in ideal nature. The Nanshu landscape paintings completed by them eventually had a major influence on the Ming and Qing art world. In addition, many Zen monks painted statues of the founder and Zen ensembles, which were brought to Japan as well. The names of Indara, Mujushi and Isan are known. In crafts, new paints of ceramics were dyed and red-painted, and techniques such as the Suiseiyu glaze and the cloisonnous ware, known as the Futsukan, were introduced. In lacquerware, the submerged gold leaf is sinking on the lacquer surface, and the sedimentary red-painted lacquer surface, which is carved on the thickly painted lacquer surface, became popular. [Rei Yoshimura] Ming DynastyThe Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) once again unified the country as the Han Dynasty, with the first Emperor Hongwu reigning for 31 years with Nanjing as the capital, while the second Emperor Jianwen fought against his uncle Zhutei in four years of his reign, and Zhutei ascended the throne and moved to Beijing. He was Emperor Yongle. From then on, the capital was placed in Beijing City until the Qing Dynasty was destroyed. The Ming Dynasty was the era when the emperor's power became the most powerful, and art was mainly based on the tastes of those in power. Paintings at the kingdom were painted under strict restrictions, making it impossible for unique creative activities to be made. During the Hongwu period (1368-1398), there were people called Zhao Wu, Shen Xiyan, and Zhou Li, and during the Xunde period (1426-1435), people called the Zhepa faction, such as Li Jai, Zhou Wenjing. The Zhe faction was later passed down among painters in the kingdoms such as Wu Wei, Zhang Ru, and Jiang Sang, and at the end of the Ming Dynasty, Langei and Xi Zhishin. In the middle of the Ming Dynasty, two artists, Qing Ying, who were professional painters of the Municipal Arts, and Tang Ying, who were excellent at both poetry and documentary paintings, were also published in the Uen faction, and many people in the future praised the arts of Qing Ying. In the second half of the Ming Dynasty, the center of the art world shifted to literary figures, but this was the beginning of this work in the Suzhou Shen Zhou and Wen Zhenming. In the late Ming Dynasty, writers Mo Zhiryo and Dong Qichang, and others argued for the Uen-style paintings as Beijing paintings, and for the Nan sect paintings as well as the Nan sect paintings, criticised the painters of the paintings, which were many from Zhejiang as Zhejiang as Zhejiang, and defended the Wu-style painters, who were many from Suzhou as Wu faction. In particular, Dong Qichang's influence was strong, making the predominance of the Wu faction an absolute. The rise of Jingdezhengang kiln is particularly noteworthy in the crafts. Blue flowers and underglaze red (Yuuriko), which began in the Yuan Dynasty, were continued to be produced at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, but from the early 15th century onwards, even more excellent colors appeared, and various vessel shapes also appeared. From the mid-term, glaze refinement technology advanced, and blue flowers, red paintings, and five colors became more refined, and gold brocades were also produced. Since 1955, excavations of several tombs of the 13 emperors since Yongle and the 13 tombs of the Ming Dynasty have been planned in the northern outskirts of Beijing, and several tombs of Emperor Banreki's Ding tombs have already been completed. Royal tombs have also been excavated in various places, and the elaborate burial items show that the level of craft techniques at the time was extremely high. [Rei Yoshimura] Qing Dynastyになったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. Wu joined the Jesuits, while Ahn's turning point was his work in creating coloured flower and bird paintings. In particular, the style of Ahn formed the Changzhou faction, with Ma Gengyo, Zhang Yikkei, and Qian Da-sang. Shensen, who had a major influence on Japanese paintings during the Edo period, was also of this faction. Nanga was accepted by the Art Academy, and became a faction that formed the Qing Dynasty, along with the Yuan school, who blended North and South paintings, along with Western painting methods brought about by the Italian Giuseppe Castiglione (Lonzein). However, without any development, these factions rapidly declined around Dongji (1862-1874). になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. Wang Shi Shin often painted daffodils and Mei, Li Fang Xiang was bamboo, and Zheng Ying was bamboo, and they were originally amateurs who painted the same title. The subjectivist paintings of the Eight Monsters were passed down to Hua Guan of Hangzhou, Zhao Ziqian of Xianfeng, and Goshun Kei of late Qing. The Jingdezhen Kiln, which had been stolen at the end of the Ming Dynasty, was rebuilt in the Qing Dynasty, and it developed significantly after the arrival of the Ceramic Officer Zhao in 1683 (Kangxi 22). Next, with the efforts of the Ceramic Officer Zhao in 1727 (Yongzhen 5), and by the efforts of the Ceramic Officers such as Yongzhen and Qianlong, who arrived in 1735, the Jingdezhen Kiln reached its peak. [Rei Yoshimura] Contemporary artIn the midst of over 100 years of turmoil from the Opium War to the birth of New China in 1949, the tradition of literary painting in the Qing Dynasty was passed down to Zhao Zhiqian and Min Hounen, and after the Xinhai Revolution, the life-focused was maintained by Wu Jungzi and Qi Bai Shi, who carried on the trend. Meanwhile, Western art, which was in the future from the late Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China, also had a certain impact on Chinese art. A number of painters began to look at nature and humans with the "realistic" eyes of modern Western Europe. An extension of this trend is Jiang Zhaowa's "Lunin Diagram" (1940), which depicts the miserable figures of people who are wandering in war, using traditional techniques of ink painting. になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. [Shigeru Ochiai] "Yonezawa Yoshihama and Suzuki Susumu, "The World Art Series 8-10: Chinese Art" (1963-1965, Kodansha)" ▽ "Zazuho Publishing Society, "Fine Art in the World 15: China" (1971, Shogakukan)" ▽ "M. Sullivan, translated by Shindo Takehiro, "History of Chinese Art" (1973, Shinchosha)" ▽ "Miyagawa Torao, Illustrated History of China 12: The Flow of Chinese Art" (1977, Kodansha)" ▽ "Nagahiro Toshio, "The World's Cultural Historical Sites 7: Cave Temples in China" (1969, Kodansha)" ▽ "Yoshimura Rei and Yoshimura Chisako, "A Journey to Chinese Art" (1980, Bijutsu Publishing)" ▽ "Suzuki Takashi, "The History of Chinese Paintings Part 1" (1981, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "History of Chinese Ceramics" (1981, Minomi) edited by China Foreign Publishing Company [参照項目] ||||©Shogakukan "> Distribution of major ruins in China Neolithic period (2650-2350 BC) Majiaya Culture Semi-mountain type Height 40 x Width 40.6 cm Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Colored Ceramic Cans The rear row is a ye on the left and right, and a yeong in the center, two yeongs between them, with the outer left and the yeongs on the right. The middle row is a yeong, a yeong, a yeong, a yeong, a yeong, a yeong, a yeong, a yeong, from the left. The front row is a doe between two yeongs of different shapes. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Yin to Xizhou period (late 11th century BC)"> Bronze ware for rituals Previous Han Dynasty (2nd century BC) 26.5cm diameter, Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Black red clouds and lacquer bowl Maiden. Previous Han Dynasty (2nd century BC) Colored ceramics Height 53.3cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Ceramic warrior Later Han Dynasty (around 25-220) Diameter 23.5cm Metropolitan Museum of Art Collection "> Bronze mirror with divine bronze The statue is about 14m tall. On the right is a standing Buddha statue. The front wall of the cave has collapsed, exposing the statue. Part of the World Heritage "Yungang Grottoes" (China, registered in 2001) China Datong ©Shogakukan "> Yungang Grottoes No. 20 Ro Seated Buddha Northern Wei Dynasty (around 470-480) Sandstone Height 146.1cm Metropolitan Museum of Art "> A statue of the bisectoral Bodhisattva in Cave 25 of Yungang Cave The principal image of the Bonseonsa Cave. It was completed in 675 at the request of Emperor Gaozong. It is a beautiful stone Buddha that represents the pinnacle of Tang Dynasty sculpture. Total height 17.14m Part of the Longmen Grottoes, a World Heritage Site (China, registered in 2000) Southern suburbs of Luoyang, China ©Shogakukan "> Seated Vairocana Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes 13th century rubbings. Artwork portion 24.4 x 12.7 cm. Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art . Wang Xizhi's "Seventeen Chapters" Probably from the Sui Dynasty (581-618) Limestone Pigment 100.8cm tall, Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Colored stone carving Kannon Bodhisattva statue Part of a scroll from the Tang Dynasty (around 750), 30.8 cm tall (11.4 m long), owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art . Han Kan's "White Paintings of the Night" Tang Dynasty (late 7th century to early 8th century) Tang Sanshashi Height 44.5cm Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Casual Warrior Song Dynasty (late 10th century to 13th century) Height: 34cm Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Celadon straight necked bottle Part. Northern Song Dynasty (c. 1080), silk scroll, 35.6 cm tall (853.8 cm long), owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art . Guo Xi's Tree-colored Pingyuan Picture Scrolls Part. Northern Song Dynasty (around 1095) Scroll, length 31.1cm (roll length 556.9cm) Collection of Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Yue Zhen, "Wujiang Zhou Zhou Volume" Part. Southern Song Dynasty (before 1200) Scroll, height 27.6cm (roll length 747.2cm) Collection of Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Yonetomo Hitoshi "Cross Mountain Map" Southern Song Dynasty (early 13th century) Silk, work part 24.8 x 21.3 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Natsukei's "Yamaichi Clear Storm" Fan painting. Southern Song Dynasty (early 13th century). Silk. Artwork portion 25.1 x 26.7 cm. Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art . Ma Yuan's "Admiring the Plum Blossoms Under the Moon" Part. Southern Song Dynasty (mid 13th century) Height 33.2cm (roll length 993.6cm) Collection of Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Zhao Mengjian's "Dadxus Diagram" Jun ware, Yuan dynasty (late 12th century to 13th century), blue-glazed porcelain, diameter 19.1 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Tensei glaze bowl Jingdezhen Kiln Yuan Dynasty (14th century) Height 29.8cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Blue and white Bodhisattva statue Part of a scroll from the Yuan Dynasty (around 1295), 23.2 cm tall (1063.8 cm long), owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art . Selected by Qian: Scroll of Swan Watching at the Lanting Pavilion Part. Motodai (around 1310) Scroll, height 26.8cm (scroll length 781.5cm) Collection of Metropolitan Museum of Art "> 趙孟頫『雙松平遠図』 Late Yuan Dynasty (around 1367) Artwork section 67.9 x 34.3 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Wang Meng's "Diamond Cliff and the Green Tank" Yuan Dynasty (1372) Artwork section 94.6 x 35.9 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Ni Zan's "Map of the Forests of Mount Yu" Motodai (14th century) Size: 17cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art Collection "> Red peony lacquer Ming Dynasty (late 14th century) Artwork section 95.3 x 35.2 cm, the Metropolitan Museum of Art Collection "> Zhao Wan "Harukawa Sends Map" Part. Ming to early Qing Dynasty scroll, 27.9cm tall (928.7cm scroll length) held by Metropolitan Museum of Art "> 李在『董巨馬夏合風山水図』 Ming Dynasty (15th century) Artwork section 91.3 x 41.9 cm, the Metropolitan Museum of Art Collection "> Shu Wen-Jing "Fishing hidden map" Ming Dynasty (16th century) Work section 148.9 x 98.7 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Zhang Lu's "View of Painting" Fan screen. Ming Dynasty (16th century) Height 17.8 x Width 50.2 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art Collection "> Shige Tokiomi's "Retirement Map" Part. Ming Dynasty (1535-1560), silk scroll, 32.4 cm tall (543 cm long), owned by the Art Institute of Chicago . Qiu Ying's "Peach Blossom Spring" Part. Ming Dynasty (late 15th century to early 16th century) Scroll Silk Height 32.4cm (scroll length 778cm) Collection of Metropolitan Museum of Art "> 唐寅『山水八段図巻』 Ming Dynasty (1475) Work section 152.4 x 62.9 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Shen Zhou's "Fishing in the Autumn Forest" Ming Dynasty (1543) Work section 95.3 x 45.7 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Wen Zhengming's "Map of the Buildings" Ming Dynasty (1581) Works Division 119.1 x 41cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art "> 莫是龍『倣黄公望山水図』 Qing Dynasty (1666) Work section 134.6 x 56.5 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Wang Shimin's "Landscape Painting by Huang Gongwang" Qing Dynasty (17th century) Picture book 29.8×31.4cm Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Wang Jian's "Imitation of Ancient Landscapes" Qing Dynasty (1669) Work section 112.7 x 35.9 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Wang Yu's "Imitation of Li Cheng Xueyeon" Qing Dynasty (1695) Artwork section 108.6 x 51.4 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Wang Yuanqi “Imitation of Wuchen Landscape” Qing Dynasty (1702) Works Division 187.3 x 90.2 cm, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, held by Zhu Qing "Two Hawks Diagram" Qing Dynasty (around 1694) Artwork 222.9 x 76.2 cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Shi Tao's "Bamboo in the Wind and Rain" Qing Dynasty (1773) Works section 80 x 54.6 cm, collection of Metropolitan Museum of Art "> Rapei's "Shinoen Drinking Diagram" Qing Dynasty (1753) Four-width pairs 272.4 x 68.6 cm each, the Metropolitan Museum of Art Collection "> Zheng Ying "Tonsan Sweet Bamboo Diagram" Qing Dynasty (1867) Works section 181.9 x 48.1 cm each, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, held by the Metropolitan Museum of Art "> 趙之謙『篆書五言対聯』 Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
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中国は50を超える民族からなる多民族国家だが、歴史の主役になったのは漢民族であった。今日、国土の北辺に連なる長城は、古代における農耕の北限界、北方の異民族に対する防衛ラインだが、過去数千年にわたる中国の歴史は、実に南北両勢力の抗争の歴史といってよい。中国北方に興起した有力な遊牧民族は、しばしば長城線を越えて南下し、ときには強力な征服王朝を築き上げ、元や清(しん)のように長期にわたり漢民族を支配する場合もあったが、文化的優位にたったのは、つねに漢民族の側であった。 そして中国文化史上重視しなければならないのは、南北の関係よりはむしろ東西の関係であって、インドやペルシアをはじめ、ギリシア、ローマ、エジプトといった西方文化は、中国文化の形成に多大の影響を及ぼしたのである。かりに中国美術を華麗に織り成した綾錦(あやにしき)に例えるならば、経糸(たていと)は中国固有の伝統美術、緯(よこ)糸は西方からの外来美術ということになろう。 緯糸である西方文化が強力に導入されたとき、その文様はすこぶる複雑多彩で変化に富むものとなり、西方の影響が弱まったとき、経糸である漢民族のもつ独自の色合いが強く打ち出されることになる。西の影響は、古来、多々あったが、その最たるものは仏教であって、それを自家薬籠(やくろう)中のものとして、独自なものへと発展させた消化吸収力も驚異に値する。そして中国で再編成された仏教文化は周辺諸国、日本や朝鮮の美術にも決定的な影響を及ぼすことになるのである。 ［吉村 怜］ 彩陶文化と黒陶文化中国における最初の芸術活動が顕著にみられるのは彩陶文化である。いまから数千年前、陝西(せんせい)省、山西省、河南省など黄河流域に移り住んだ漢民族の祖先たちは、優れた才能でもって美しい器形をもつ土器、彩陶をつくりだした。器物の表面に紅や黒や白で、渦巻文や波状文などの文様を施した手づくねの土器である。1921年、河南省澠池(めんち)県仰韶(ぎょうしょう)村でスウェーデンの地質学者J・G・アンダーソンによって発見されたので、これを仰韶文化とよぶ。精巧な磨製石器とともに灰褐色の粗製の甑(こしき)や鼎(かなえ)なども出土、すでに農耕・牧畜を行っていたことが知られる。この最初の発見以降、今日では資料も豊富膨大となり、黄河の中・上流域に広範囲に分布する彩陶文化は、仰韶文化、大汶口(だいぶんこう)文化、馬家窯(ばかよう)文化と発展していくことが明らかとなった。また類似する土器が西アジアでも出土することから、西方影響の下に発生したとする西方起源説が有力だが、これに対して中国の学者の多くは多元的な発生説をとり、中国で独自に発生し、発達を遂げたとする説を支持している。また1954年、西安(せいあん)東郊の半坡(はんぱ)村から仰韶文化晩期とみられる古代人の住居や墓地の遺跡が発見され、円形や方形の建築址(し)や農耕・狩猟のための生産具が多量に出土した。遺跡の一部は半坡博物館として現状のまま保存されており、半坡出土の彩陶は、黒線で魚や人面を描くなど素朴な雰囲気をもつ原始絵画として注目を集めている。 この彩陶に次いで現れるのが黒陶文化である。黒陶は漆黒のきめの細かい美しい光沢をもつ土器で、ときにろくろを用いたものがあり、薄手で軽量、驚くほど精巧なものがある。1931年、山東省済南(せいなん)に近い竜山鎮(りゅうざんちん)で発見されたため竜山文化期とも称されるが、主として山東省、河南省、河北省、遼東(りょうとう)半島に分布する。黒陶は彩陶に比べると器形も複雑となり、(き)のような三脚をもち、注口を斜めに突き出した把手(とって)のある、独特の土器の出現などは、すでに相当高度の文化があったことを示している。今日殷(いん)王朝に先行する夏(か)王朝の存在について関心が高まっており、河南省偃師(えんし)県の二里頭で発見された王宮址をその候補にあげる学者も少なくない。黒陶を伴う竜山文化が夏王朝とどのように結び付くかは、今後の研究課題なのである。また、揚子江(ようすこう)流域で古くから水稲が行われていたことを立証する浙江(せっこう)省余姚(よよう)県の河姆渡(かぼと)遺跡も考古学者の注目を集めている。 ［吉村 怜］ 殷周時代竜山文化の後を受け黄河流域を中心に栄えたのが殷(いん)周王朝だが、すでに青銅器文化は高度の発達を遂げていた。河南省鄭州(ていしゅう)市の地は殷代前期の都とされており、1辺1.7キロメートルから2キロメートルにわたる広大な城壁があり、古拙な青銅器、骨角器を伴う工房址などが発見されている。また、河南省安陽市西郊の小屯村にある殷墟(いんきょ)は殷代後期の都であった所で、20世紀に入ってから組織的な発掘調査が継続して行われた。大きく蛇行する洹河(えんが)の南岸では王宮や宗廟(そうびょう)の建築址がみつかり、多数の甲骨断片が出土し、また洹河(えんが)の北岸、侯家荘(こうかそう)西北岡では亜字形や中字形などの平面をもつ10数基の大墓が発掘された。この大墓群は何十体もの殉死者や首を斬(き)られた犠牲者を伴うことで世間を驚かせたが、王朝の絶大な権力を象徴するかのような巨大な青銅器を多量に出土する。近年小屯村では中型墓が完全な形で発見され、「婦好」の銘のある青銅器が多数出土した。婦好は第22代の王、武丁(ぶてい)の王妃だと考えられている。 周が殷を滅ぼしたのは紀元前1028年ごろ。陝西省岐山(きざん)に興り、西安の西郊、宗周に都したが、成王の時代に成周とよぶ都を洛陽(らくよう)に建設し、各地に有力な王族や功臣を諸侯として封建した。周の遺跡は遼寧(りょうねい)や広東(カントン)といった地域、中国の全域にわたるような範囲で広がっており、中央の文化がすでに早い時期に地方へと拡散していたことを証明している。 先に述べたように、殷周時代は青銅器文化が最高潮に達した時代であった。青銅器の器形は実に多様で、用途別にみると、鼎(てい)・鬲(れき)・献(けん)は食物を煮る器、簋(き)・豆(とう)は食物を盛る器、爵(しゃく)・斝(か)・盉(か)は酒を温める器、尊(そん)・卣(ゆう)・罍(らい)・壺(こ)・瓿(ほう)は酒を盛る器、觚(こ)・觶(し)は酒を飲む器、盤(ばん)・鑑(かん)・盂(う)・匜(い)は水を盛る器である。殷の青銅器の銘文はせいぜい図象文字が彫られている程度だが、周の銘文になるとかなり長文のものもあって、製作の由来を詳しく知ることができる。これによると、青銅器はいずれも祖先を祭祀(さいし)するためのもので、帝王や貴族の尊厳を誇示し、その栄誉や特権が世襲されてゆくことを強く主張している。青銅器の器形や文様が荘重で厳粛な趣(おもむき)をもつのはそのためで、器物の表面には饕餮文(とうてつもん)や虺竜文(きりゅうもん)のような怪獣のほか、鴟鴞(しきょう)や虎(とら)や蛇のような鳥獣の文様を描き、主文様と主文様の間には無数の細かい渦巻状の雷文(らいもん)を充填(じゅうてん)しており、緑青(ろくしょう)や赤紫など古色の美しさと相まって独特の美の世界をつくりだしている。また陶器についてみると、一般の生活用具として灰陶とよばれる粗製の陶器が用いられたが、釉薬(うわぐすり)を用いた青磁系の陶器もある。とくに殷では、白陶という純白で上質の土器が注目をひくが、大きく分けて彩陶文化から黒陶文化へ、ついで白陶文化へと3段階の発展過程のあることが、地層の層序関係によって証明された。なお衣服は、麻などの繊維のほか毛皮や絹の使用も認められる。装身具には笄(こうがい)、櫛(くし)、首飾り、腕飾りや、魚や鳥や動物の形をした美玉もあり、象眼(ぞうがん)や漆絵の技術など、すでに高い水準にあったことがわかっている。 ［吉村 怜］ 春秋戦国時代黄河流域を中心に広い範囲で中国全域を支配していた周王朝は、前770年、その本拠地宗周が北方から犬戎(けんじゅう)の侵略を受け壊滅、このとき周の平王は洛陽(らくよう)に東遷し、王朝はからくも滅亡の危機を脱した。1960年に陝西省岐山、扶風(ふふう)両県一帯で発見された多量の西周青銅器の埋蔵状況は、犬戎の進攻急だったことを示している。周王朝は洛陽東遷以前を西周、以後を東周、または春秋戦国時代とよんで区別する。春秋戦国時代は晋(しん)が趙(ちょう)・魏(ぎ)・韓(かん)の3国に分裂した前403年を境として春秋時代と戦国時代とに分けている。 西周末期、王朝の衰退とともに青銅器も力強さが失われる。精巧だった文様も粗雑なものが多くなるが、この傾向は基本的には春秋時代前半ごろまで変わらない。当然のことながら春秋時代になると出土する青銅器の多くが諸侯国のものとなってくる。春秋中期以降になると強大化する諸侯の力を反映してか、その形態や文様に変化が現れてくる。蓋(ふた)の頂部に板状の突起をもつ方壺や簋は、この時代の青銅器の特徴の一つである。文様では饕餮文のような獣面は減少し、それにかわって簡略化された窃曲(せっきょく)文や構成単位が縮小した蟠竜(ばんりゅう)文や蟠螭(ばんち)文が主流となる。これは春秋の末から戦国にかけて諸侯国で製作された青銅器が、周王朝の伝統を離れ、本来の礼器・祭器としての意味が失われて単なる宝物と考えられるようになったためで、器形、文様もさまざまに変化し、北方遊牧民族の影響を受けた動物文様、揚子江流域に伝統的に受け継がれた幾何学文様、また人々の生活描写などが、薄手で単純な器形に象眼技法で表現されていった。1974年、河北省平山県滹沱(こだ)河沿いで白狄(はくてき)人の小国中山国の初代の王(さく)（前323即位）の陵墓が発掘されたが、出土した金銀象眼竜鳳(りゅうほう)方案や屏風(びょうぶ)台座、雲文方壺などの青銅器群にみられる完成度は青銅器芸術の頂点を示すものである。ほかに銅板に金象眼されたこの陵墓の設計図である兆域(ちょういき)図、躍動的な文様で装飾された光沢のある黒色陶器、多種多様な玉器なども出土している。これらの出土品のなかには他の黄河流域の戦国墓に共通するものもあるが、そのできばえは小国とはいえ諸侯国の間にあって活躍した白狄族のユニークな美意識の所産を示している。 ［吉村 怜］ 秦代前306年、西北の辺境の秦(しん)に昭襄王(しょうじょうおう)が即位した。昭襄王の曽孫(そうそん)の秦王政、後の始皇帝が即位したのは前247年、13歳のときで、彼は即位と同時に酈山(りざん)の始皇帝陵の造営を開始している。前221年、秦は天下統一を達成したが、自らの称号を皇帝と定め、度量衡、貨幣、書体、車幅などを統一した。これら諸制度の徹底と皇帝の威厳を示すため、始皇帝は全国を巡幸し、各地に統一文字の篆書(てんしょ)による刻石文を残している。また民間兵器を没収して都の咸陽(かんよう)に集め、30トンもある人物像12体や鐘鐻(しょうきょ)という楽器に改鋳したという。北方の匈奴(きょうど)に対しては、燕(えん)・趙の築造した北辺の長城を連結し1万数千里に及ぶ大長城を築いて防衛にあてた。前212年には渭水(いすい)の南岸で阿房宮(あぼうきゅう)の造営が始められた。阿房宮は東西690メートル、南北115メートルの2階建てで、上階には1万人が坐(すわ)れたという。この宮殿からは2層の閣道が南北に延び、南は南山の頂に、北は渭水を渡り咸陽宮に達したという。 近年、阿房宮の版築基壇の調査をもとにその復原が行われ、また咸陽宮の発掘も進められ、数頭の馬が描かれた壁画の小片が出土している。酈山では1974年、兵馬俑(よう)坑の発掘が始まった。この俑坑は始皇帝陵の墳丘から東へ2キロメートルほどの所に3か所が発見され、坑内には陵園全体を外側から守護する構成で軍団俑が埋められていた。出土品は木製戦車20両、陶馬100頭、陶騎馬兵29件、陶武人俑1400件、青銅武器1万点余、未出土のものを含め1万件以上の俑があるという。これらはすべて等身大で、きわめて写実的につくられ、武器はすべて実物が用いられている。これら兵馬俑の精巧さと規模の巨大さは驚くべきものだが、それとても陵園のほんの一部なのである。陵は前206年項羽の軍によって暴かれたが、園の内外からは俑坑以外にも、数々の遺品や遺跡が相次いで発掘されている。1980年には墳丘西辺で縮尺2分の1の青銅製車馬が2両発見され、精巧な鋳造技術や優美な車蓋(しゃがい)の形などで人々を驚嘆させた。かつて秦の美術史上の位置は不明な点が多かったが、近年の始皇帝陵や咸陽宮などの発掘でその力強い写実性が再認識され、人々の注目を集めている。 ［吉村 怜］ 漢代漢は前期の前漢（前202～後8）と後期の後漢(ごかん)（後25～220）に分かれ（この中間に王莽(おうもう)が国を奪って建てた新がある）、前漢は陝西の長安を、後漢は洛陽(らくよう)を首都とした。殷周から春秋戦国にかけ各地で成熟した地方の文化は、この安定した長期の統一王朝のもとで統合整理され漢文化を形成し確立した。この漢文化は、以後の中国の多くの分野に多大な影響を与えたが、美術史においても漢代美術のもつ意味はきわめて大きく、中国固有の美術という場合、漢代に形成された独特の美術様式と考えて差し支えない。 前漢の初め、漢は北の匈奴との争いに明け暮れるが、国力が充実した武帝のとき漢は匈奴を討伐し、また特使張騫(ちょうけん)によって開かれた西域(せいいき)への道は大宛(だいえん)遠征をも可能にした。この遠征以後、西方諸国との交易が大いに行われ、西方の文物も多量に流入してくるのである。 1968年と1972年、前漢の未盗掘の大型墓が2基発掘され注目を集めた。一つは河北省満城県の西郊、陵山の頂上で発見された崖墓(がいぼ)で、墓主は武帝の庶兄中山王劉勝(りゅうしょう)とその夫人竇綰(とうわん)だった。いわゆる満城1号・2号漢墓である。劉勝と竇綰は現在発掘されている漢墓のなかでもっとも高位の人物であり、副葬品もそれにふさわしく、長信宮灯(ちょうしんきゅうとう)、金象眼博山炉(はくざんろ)、金銀象眼鳥形篆書銅鍾(てんしょどうしょう)など精巧な鋳造と象眼技術を駆使した豪華な品々のほか、金縷玉衣(きんるぎょくい)の完全なものも出土した。これは玉板を純金の針金でかがり遺体の全身を覆った衣装で、銅縷、銀縷の玉衣は断片が数体発掘されているが、金縷玉衣の発見は初めてのものである。 もう一つの大型墓は湖南省長沙(ちょうさ)の東郊、馬王堆(まおうたい)で発掘された3基の竪穴(たてあな)式木槨(もっかく)墓で、うち1号墓は造営後の密封が完全だったため保存状態のよい遺体が出土したことで著名である。副葬品の保存状態もよく、普通は残片すら残ることのまれな漆器、絹織物、木製明器(めいき)、棺、竹簡(ちくかん)、帛書(はくしょ)、帛画などが多量にほぼ完全な形で出土した。特筆すべきは、出土した四重の棺のうち第2棺と第3棺に描かれた漆絵、そして棺上に置かれていた非衣(ひい)とよばれた帛画である。第2棺には、黒地に流れるような彩色雲気文と、その間に蛇をもてあそぶ怪神や仙人が生き生きとした姿で描かれている。第3棺は朱の地、各面いっぱいに竜、虎、仙山に鹿(しか)、璧(へき)を貫く双竜などが色鮮やかに描かれている。非衣は遺体が直接納められていた内棺の上に置かれており、T字形をした2メートルほどの幢幡(どうばん)のような構造をもつ帛画で、左右の袖(そで)に日月双竜などを描き、中心線に沿って上から女身蛇尾像、鐸(たく)、門神、ミミズク、墓主像、璧(へき)を貫く双竜、人面鳥、供膳(きょうぜん)の場面、そして最下段にそれらを支える力士や怪魚が描かれている。何を意味するのか不明な点も多いが、楚(そ)の国に伝わっていた伝説や神話に題材をとって描かれたに違いなく、当時の文化や絵画の水準を伝える貴重な出土品であった。 殷周以来の墓制であった竪穴式木槨墓は、始皇帝陵以後、中原(ちゅうげん)を中心に徐々に変化し、前漢末には横穴式の地下宮殿が主流になる。墓主は墓室内を死後の生活の場とし、内部を地上の宮殿をまねて装飾し、日用品、家財道具、食料、便所までも副葬した。また墓壁には生前の生活の場面を描き、死後の世界においても継続させようと願った。つまり墓の中には当時の生活が形を変えて投影されているのである。前漢では洛陽の卜千秋(ぼくせんしゅう)墓、後漢では河北省望都県1号漢墓、内(うち)モンゴル自治区和林格爾(ホリンゴール)漢墓、河南省密県打虎亭(だこてい)漢墓などが発掘され、当時の絵画作品の一端がうかがえる。また山東省や河南省を中心に画像石がつくられた。画像石は建築用石材の表面に線刻や薄い浮彫りで物語や伝説、神話、生活の場面などを描いたもので、後漢のものが多い。有名なものに、山東省では沂南(きなん)県石槨、肥城県孝堂山石室、嘉祥(かしょう)県武氏祠(し)石室、曲阜(きょくふ)県魯城(ろじょう)の霊光殿(れいこうでん)跡、四川(しせん)省では渠(きょ)県の馮煥石闕(ふうかんせっけつ)、雅安県の高頤(こうい)石闕があり、河南省では1960年代南陽市を中心に多くの画像石墓が発掘され、うち約800点が南陽漢画館に収蔵されたが、これらは南陽画像石として一様式を形成している。この系統に属する画像石が唐河県新店の前漢から王莽時代にかけての墓から出土していることから、南陽画像石は前漢にさかのぼることが確認される。 墓の副葬品では、後漢を中心に膨大な量の陶俑が出土している。解放以前に世に出た俑は出土地が不明で研究は困難を極めたが、解放後は科学的な考古学調査が行われており、出土地による分類や細かな年代判定が可能となってきている。また甘粛(かんしゅく)省武威県雷台漢墓からは数体の青銅俑が出土。なかでも飛燕(ひえん)に乗った馬は特筆すべき優品である。遺体の周辺に置かれる銅鏡も戦国以前から知られるが、背面の文様はこの時代にはより装飾的となり、内行花文(ないこうかもん)鏡、四神鏡、方格規矩(ほうかくきく)鏡などいっそう多様なものとなった。陵墓に置かれる石造彫刻では、武帝時代の将軍霍去病(かくきょへい)墓の巨大な石獣が著名である。 ［吉村 怜］ 南北朝時代漢が滅びると魏・蜀(しょく)・呉(ご)の3国が鼎立(ていりつ)し、魏は河南省洛陽、蜀は四川省成都、呉は江蘇(こうそ)省建業（南京(ナンキン)）に都し、これによって蜀や江南の文化は著しく興隆した。魏は晋(しん)に移り変わり、紀元後280年、3国を統一して王朝を建てたが、これも西晋(せいしん)（265～316）と東晋(とうしん)（317～420）に分けられ、前者は洛陽を、後者は江蘇省建康に都した。以後、宋(そう)・斉(せい)・梁(りょう)・陳が続くが、これを南朝といい、北中国を統一した北魏(ほくぎ)に始まり東魏・西魏・北斉・北周と受け継がれた華北の諸王朝を北朝という。漢滅亡以後、北周から出た隋(ずい)が陳を討って全国を統一（589）するまでの約370年を魏晋南北朝時代とよぶ。 前漢武帝のとき開かれた西方との交易路、いわゆるシルク・ロードを通って仏教が中国に伝わったのは前漢末から後漢にかけてである。当時インドで隆盛だった仏教も中国では異国の新興宗教の一つにすぎず、記録によると、当初の仏像は老子の像などといっしょに祀(まつ)られるのが一般的だったらしい。つまり仏像は、伝来の当初から中国固有の宗教文化のなかで受け入れられ、そこではぐくまれたといえる。仏像を祀るための祠堂や儀礼などは、かなり濃厚に中国式が行われたが、仏像制作の手本となったのはおそらくガンダーラ製の小像だったと思われる。 後漢末には仏教教団も組織され、経典の翻訳も行われたが、社会生活のなかに本格的に根を下ろすのは南北朝に入ってからといってよい。漢滅亡後の仏教の中心地は洛陽から東晋の建康へと移ったが、東晋末になると彫刻家載安道(たいあんどう)が仏像の様式に大きな変革をもたらした。彼の仏像の特徴はきわめて中国風のもので、漢民族の趣向にかなった顔だちと誇張された衣文(えもん)にあったと考えられる。この変革によって建康の仏教美術は仏像を含めてまったく中国風のものとなり、以後の主流となった。 一方、固有の文化をもたない北魏には西方から新たな仏教美術の流れが注ぎ込んできた。それは、当時の中央アジアにまで広がっていたインドのグプタ朝美術の影響を受けたもので、仏像は丸顔に印象的な目、薄い衣を透かして誇張された堂々とした肉体を特徴とした。この様式はすでに涼州(りょうしゅう)にまで達していて、北魏が北涼を併呑(へいどん)すると同時に堰(せき)を切ったように都の平城（山西省大同）に流れ込んできた。初期の敦煌石窟(とんこうせっくつ)、炳霊寺(へいれいじ)石窟、麦積山(ばくせきざん)石窟、そして雲崗(うんこう)石窟などはみなこの西方様式東漸の流れのなかで造営されたといってよい。雲崗石窟には当時の仏像が大量に保存されているが、この石窟は、北魏仏教界の最高指導者で北涼出身だった僧曇曜(どんよう)が文成帝(ぶんせいてい)の勅許を得て460年に造営を始めた石窟寺院で、最初期の五大窟をとくに曇曜五窟とよぶ。この五窟の内部には、太祖以下の五帝を写したとされる十数メートルの大像が丸彫りされている。そして494年に王朝が洛陽に遷都するまで、42の石窟が造営された。遷都後、洛陽郊外の竜門にも石窟寺院が造営されたが、北魏仏教のパトロンたちはこのころから新たな美術様式の選択を行った。すなわち、それまで大同を中心に盛行していた北涼系の仏像様式を捨て、南朝の建康で行われていた漢民族の仏像様式を採用したのである。この選択は、当時北魏王朝のあらゆる分野で行われた漢化政策の一環だったといえる。北魏の洛陽に現出した仏教は中国仏教の第1期黄金時代というべきもので、南朝、斉、梁の仏教美術の影響下に繁栄をみた。だが、建康にしても洛陽にしても、繁栄を誇った仏寺や仏像はたちまち戦火で失われてしまった。 仏教美術以外では、南朝での絵画の発展が特筆される。東晋に顧愷之(こがいし)が現れ、絵画はより高度な技術と高い芸術性を帯びるに至った。彼の作品は後代の模本だが『女史箴図巻(じょししんずかん)』『洛神図巻(らくしんずかん)』が伝わっている。4世紀後半王羲之(おうぎし)・王献之(おうけんし)父子によって極度に発達した書は、絵画の発展にも大きく貢献した。また5世紀初頭には宗炳(そうへい)、王微(おうび)らによって山水画が創始され、6世紀なかばころまでに絵画の評論基準ともいうべき「六法(ろっぽう)」が謝赫(しゃかく)の『古画品録(こがひんろく)』によって理論化された。彼らはいずれも書や文学、音楽にも長(た)けた文人画家だったが、一方では宮廷内を中心に宋の陸探微(りくたんび)、梁の張僧繇(ちょうそうよう)ら職業画家の活躍もあった。とくに張僧繇は簡潔な筆使い、陰影による立体表現を用いて多くの仏画を描き、隋唐仏教絵画の規範となった。南北朝時代の絵画活動は、最近まで遺品がきわめて少なく、後代の文献によって一端を想像するにすぎなかったが、1960年代、南京郊外で南朝陵墓の発掘が行われて多くの磚(せん)画が出土し、また近年では太原(たいげん)市郊外で北斉の婁叡墓(ろうえいぼ)、河北省磁県で東魏の茹々公主(じょじょこうしゅ)墓が発掘され色鮮やかな壁画が出現して注目を集めている。これらは南北朝美術を具体的に知るうえで貴重な発見といえよう。 ［吉村 怜］ 隋代・唐代隋(ずい)の文帝は南北を統一（589）し、首都を長安に置き、洛陽を東都としたが、2代の煬帝(ようだい)で滅ぶ。群雄のなかから太原の李淵(りえん)（唐の高祖）が出て長安を陥れ、618年帝位についた。ついで626年次男の李世民（太宗(たいそう)）が即位、積極的な外交政策をとり大唐帝国の覇権をアジア全域に確立し、その都である長安は世界第一の国際都市となった。このため唐の文化はあらゆる面で国際色を帯び、美術は強く西方の影響を受けるに至った。とくに仏教美術では、645年玄奘(げんじょう)の帰国とともにもたらされたインドの経典や仏画や彫像は大きな刺激となった。また643年から唐の使節としてインドに赴いた王玄策(おうげんさく)一行らが各地で模写して持ち帰った仏教図像も、当時の仏像仏画の手本となり、第2期の仏教興隆期を迎えた。 長安や洛陽などでは多くの寺院が建立され、壁面にはおびただしい数の仏教壁画が描かれたが、張彦遠(ちょうげんえん)の『歴代名画記』によると、当時この分野で活躍した人々には、北斉の曹仲達(そうちゅうたつ)の流れをくむ曹流、南朝の張僧繇(ちょうそうよう)の流れをくむ張流の二大流派、于闐(うてん)出身の尉遅乙僧(うっちおっそう)らがいたという。玄宗の開元年間（713～741）には画聖とよばれた呉道玄(ごどうげん)の出現により呉流が寺観(じかん)壁画の主流となった。彼は早書きによる強い筆勢で鋭い墨線を引き、迫真力のある白画を描いたといわれる。これら唐代の壁画はすべて失われてしまったが、奈良・法隆寺の金堂壁画や敦煌石窟の壁画にその片鱗(へんりん)がうかがえる。敦煌石窟は4世紀なかばころ甘粛省敦煌県の南東鳴沙山(めいさざん)の断崖(だんがい)に開かれた石窟で、500ほどの石窟が現存し、うち半数は唐代のものである。石窟は岩肌がもろいため、塑像と壁画が中心だが、乾燥した気候と辺境にあったことが幸いして保存状態はきわめてよい。1907年にはイギリス人の探検家スタインがここから多くの仏典・文書などとともに、唐から宋にかけての多量の仏画を発見し運び出した。これらは現在ロンドンの大英博物館に保存されている。 唐代彫刻の遺品としては各地に残る石窟寺院の浮彫りがあるが、とくに洛陽郊外の竜門石窟と太原郊外の天竜山(てんりゅうざん)石窟が重要である。竜門では675年、高宗の発願により17メートルを超す奉先寺洞(ほうせんじどう)の本尊、毘盧遮那(びるしゃな)大仏が完成した。この大仏は中国彫刻史の一頂点を示す秀麗な仏像で、明らかにインドの影響が認められる。また天竜山石窟は破壊を受け、仏像は世界各地に散逸しているが、薄い流れるような衣の線や、広い胸に引き締まった腰という特徴のある様式を示している。 宮廷内や貴族の邸宅を飾った絵画や壁画については、近年発掘された多くの壁画墓が参考になる。なかでも乾陵(けんりょう)の陪冢(ばいちょう)の永泰公主墓(えいたいこうしゅぼ)、章懐太子(しょうかいたいし)墓、懿徳(いとく)太子墓の壁画は優れた技術と豊富な画題によって8世紀初頭の壁画のおもかげを伝えている。 太宗の宮廷でもっとも活躍した画家は閻立徳(えんりっとく)・閻立本(えんりっぽん)兄弟で、ともに工部尚書となり、弟の立本は右相(うしょう)にまで進んだ。立本の『歴代帝王図巻』は宋代の模写が伝わっている。玄宗朝の宮廷は芸術家たちにとって華やかな活躍の場だった。馬を描いて名声を得た韓幹(かんかん)、人物画の張萱(ちょうけん)、周昉(しゅうぼう)、京都・東寺に真筆の『真言五祖像』が伝わる李真(りしん)などが知られる。前記の呉道玄も玄宗朝の宮廷画家だったが、彼は当時の山水画に新たな変革をもたらし、それまで行われていた非現実的山水描写を捨て、自然主義的山水を描いたといわれる。また李思訓(りしくん)・李昭道(りしょうどう)父子による異なった山水画様式もあった。彼らはのち金碧山水(きんぺきさんすい)とよばれる、細密な描線と強い色彩を用いた技法で北宗(ほくしゅう)山水画の創始者となった。これに対立する画風をもつものに王維(おうい)がいるが、その画(え)は彼の自然詩と同様に、水墨画でも純粋で静寂な自然を対象としている。 当時の美術でもっとも国際色豊かなものは工芸品である。1970年、西安市何家村(かかそん)では、大甕(おおがめ)から金銀器、玉器など財宝約1000点が発見されたが、これらはササン朝ペルシアの影響を受けたもので、わが国の正倉院に伝わる宝物に類似するものが少なくない。墓中に埋蔵される明器には、唐三彩とよぶ三彩の釉薬(うわぐすり)のかかった陶器が大量にあるが、駱駝(らくだ)を引く胡人(こじん)、崑崙奴(こんろんど)など異国的な彫像も多い。鏡も、前代まで行われた抽象的な文様から、豪華な宝相華(ほっそうげ)に鸚鵡(おうむ)をあしらったエキゾチックな文様が好まれ、海獣葡萄鏡(かいじゅうぶどうきょう)のような西方的な特異な文様も盛行した。 このように唐代美術は国際的な性格が強く、西方の影響を受け、活気にあふれたものだったが、755～763年の安史の乱以後は王朝の衰退とともに陰りが目だち始め、845年の仏教弾圧からは急速に下降線をたどることになるのである。 ［吉村 怜］ 五代十国時代・宋代907年に唐が滅びると、五代十国とよばれる戦乱の時代が訪れる。五代とは華北に興亡した後梁(こうりょう)・後唐(こうとう)・後晋(こうしん)・後漢(こうかん)・後周(こうしゅう)の5王朝（907～960）、十国とは前蜀・後蜀(こうしょく)・呉・南唐・呉越・閩(びん)・楚(そ)・南漢・北漢など各地に興った王国で、この分裂は960年に宋(そう)が統一を果たすまで続いた。また蒙古(もうこ)では唐朝滅亡後、契丹(きったん)人の遼(りょう)が興り、東は高麗(こうらい)、西は中央アジアからペルシアにまで勢威を広げた。しかし東北で強大な勢力をもった女真族(じょしんぞく)は1115年、宋と連合して遼を討ち、かわって金を建てた。金は1126年宋の都・汴京(べんけい)（開封(かいほう)）に乱入、徽宗(きそう)皇帝らは捕らえられ、宋朝は一時滅んだ。このとき逃れた康王が南京で王朝を再興し、のち臨安（杭州(こうしゅう)）に都した。宋は開封時代を北宋、杭州時代を南宋とよぶ。 ［吉村 怜］ 五代この時代は、中原の混乱を避け、各地に分散した唐文化の担い手たちが地方の権力者のもとで活躍した異色ある時代で、蜀では花鳥画の黄筌(こうせん)や人物画家として特異な存在だった禅月大師貫休(ぜんげつだいしかんきゅう)、石恪(せきかく)らがいた。初めて画院がつくられた南唐では人物画の周文矩(しゅうぶんく)、顧閎中(ここうちゅう)、山水画の董源(とうげん)、巨然(きょねん)、花鳥画の徐煕(じょき)らがいた。 また遼におこった仏教文化は、中国に現存する最古の木造建築物である河北省薊(けい)県の独楽寺(どくらくじ)観音閣や山門、山西省大同の上・下華厳寺(けごんじ)などを残している。現在、下華厳寺には遼から金初にかけての塑像群が安置されている。北西の敦煌では曹氏一族が安定した政権を保ち、彼らの寄進造営になる石窟も多く、第61洞は最大規模のものである。 ［吉村 怜］ 宋宋は、個性の自覚に基づく中国独自の文化が熟した時代、美術史上では絵画と陶磁器の進展が特筆される時代であったといえよう。絵画では、画院で行われた細密と形式を重んずる写実様式の院体画と、形式にとらわれず自由に水墨で個性を表現した文人画の二つの流れがあった。宋の画院は北宋の徽宗のとき天子自らが画院で創作や指導にあたるなど大きな発展を示した。北宋画院の初期の山水画家には、燕文貴(えんぶんき)、高克明(こうこくめい)、関同、范寛(はんかん)、董源、巨然、郭煕(かくき)、馬賁(ばほん)らがいた。花鳥画では蜀出身の黄居寀(こうきょさい)、黄惟亮(こういりょう)が色彩を使って暈染(うんぜん)と勾勒(こうろく)線で描く黄氏体を確立、また徐煕の息子徐崇嗣(じょすうし)はもっぱら暈染で描く徐氏体を確立した。そして呉元瑜(ごげんゆ)とその弟子徽宗皇帝がいる。画院外での山水画家としては、宋朝第一といわれた李成や彼の系列下の許道寧(きょどうねい)、瀟湘(しょうしょう)八景の創始者宋迪(そうてき)、高位高官で詩文書にも長けた米芾(べいふつ)・米友仁父子、湖州の太守で墨竹画を得意とした文同、書家としても著名な蘇軾(そしょく)、墨梅図の華光仲仁(かこうちゅうじん)、白描画では馬画の李竜眠(りりゅうみん)らがいた。 画院は南宋に移ってからも盛んで、徽宗画院の画家たちはふたたびここで活動を始めた。彼らは北宋の画風をそのまま持ち込んだが、やがて南宋画院の自由な雰囲気のもとで独自の活躍をする画家が出現する。山水画では李唐、夏珪(かけい)、馬遠、人物画では劉宗古(りゅうそうこ)、蘇漢臣(そかんしん)、山水もよくした李嵩(りすう)、白描画を再興した賈師古(かしこ)、白描を発展させ減筆体を生んだ奇人梁楷(りょうかい)、花鳥画では写実の李安忠、没骨(もっこつ)的写実の李迪(りてき)、装飾性の強い於子明(おしめい)、濃厚な描線の宋汝志(そうじょし)、徹底した写実の毛松(もうしょう)らが独創的な様式を出現させた。だが時代が下ると画院も形式主義に堕し、南宋末期にはもっぱら文人画が盛況となる。文人たちは水墨の濃淡で人格表現を行う理想主義的傾向をもった。墨蘭の鄭思肖(ていししょう)、水仙の趙孟堅(ちょうもうけん)、画竜では陳容(ちんよう)が特異な技法で腕を振るった。禅僧では西湖瑪瑙寺(せいこましじ)の日観子音(にっかんしおん)、西湖六通寺(ろくつうじ)の牧谿(もっけい)、玉澗(ぎょくかん)を名のった数人の僧らが杭州を舞台に活躍し、彼らによって中国水墨画は頂点に達した。 宋の仏教彫刻は西方の影響が消え、繊細でよりリアルなものとなった。北宋時代開封で盛行した木彫には観音像や京都・清凉寺(せいりょうじ)に伝わった釈迦(しゃか)像など優れた遺品もあるが、唐でみられた荘重で神聖な趣はなく、多くが卑俗なものとなり、南宋以後はみるべき作品はほとんどなくなったといってよい。 宋の陶磁器は中国陶磁の完成期だった。北宋では、白磁を中心に制作した河北省の定窯(ていよう)、青磁は浙江省越州窯(えっしゅうよう)や河南省汝州窯(じょしゅうよう)、鈞窯(きんよう)が中心だったが、王朝の南遷とともに杭州近郊にも竜泉窯(りゅうせんよう)を中心に諸官窯が開かれた。江西省の景徳鎮では影青(いんちん)の名で知られる青白磁を制作し、福建省の建窯(けんよう)では茶の流行とともにわが国で天目(てんもく)とよばれる黒釉(こくゆう)の茶碗(ちゃわん)がつくられた。これ以外にも河北省磁州窯、河南省修武窯で絵高麗(えこうらい)とよばれる掻(かき)落しで文様を描いた庶民的な作品もつくられた。 宋代の画論では、唐末五代、益州の画家の伝記を記した黄休復の『益州名画録』、郭煕(かくき)・郭思父子の『林泉高致(りんせんこうち)』、徽宗所蔵の画軸目録の『宣和画譜(せんながふ)』などがある。 ［吉村 怜］ 元代チンギス・ハン率いるモンゴルは、1227年、中国西北部にあった西夏を滅ぼし、その後を受けたフビライは大都（北京(ペキン)）に元王朝を建てて世祖を称して帝位につき、1276年に南宋を滅ぼした。元は他の征服王朝とは異なり、中国の伝統文化にはまるで無関心で、文字も蒙古文字やパスパ文字を用い、支配層はもっぱらチベット仏教（ラマ教）文化に傾倒していた。そのため中国文化の担い手は文人、士大夫(したいふ)、商人など一般市民が主だった。元の文化は宗室を中心に発展したチベット仏教文化と、市民を中心とした復古主義的市民文化の二重構造を形成した。チベット仏教文化の遺品には居庸関過街塔基(きょようかんかがいとうき)の浮彫り彫刻や、杭州・飛来峰の石彫、北京・妙応寺の白塔などがある。 絵画は、院体画が衰退し、復古主義的文人画が盛行した。在野の文人として活躍した銭選(せんせん)や、宋の王族出身で元朝に仕え高官となり、復古運動の指導者だった趙孟頫(ちょうもうふ)らがいた。そして元末になると彼の後を受け四大家が出現する。平遠山水(へいえんさんすい)の黄公望(こうこうぼう)、復古主義の王蒙(おうもう)、無錫(むしゃく)の名族出身で在野で詩画三昧(ざんまい)の生涯を送った倪瓚(げいさん)、易者で墨竹・墨花をよくした呉鎮(ごちん)の4人で、彼らはそのよりどころを董源(とうげん)・巨然(きょねん)ら唐末五代の画家に求め、理想的自然のなかに自らを表現しようと努めた。彼らによって完成した南宗(なんしゅう)山水画は、やがて明清(みんしん)画壇に大きな影響を与えることになる。そのほか、当代も多くの禅僧が祖師像や禅会図を描き、日本にももたらされた。因陀羅(いんだら)、無住子(むじゅうし)、一菴(いつあん)らの名が知られる。 工芸では、陶磁器に新たに染付、赤絵が生まれ、また翠青釉(すいせいゆう)や、仏郎嵌(ふつろうかん)とよぶ七宝(しっぽう)焼の技法などが伝来した。漆器では漆面に金箔(きんぱく)を沈める沈金や、厚塗りの漆面に彫刻を施す堆朱(ついしゅ)が流行した。 ［吉村 怜］ 明代明(みん)王朝（1368～1644）はふたたび漢民族王朝として天下を統一し、初代洪武帝は南京を首都として31年の治世を行い、2代の建文帝は治世4年で伯父の朱棣(しゅてい)と戦って破れ、朱棣は即位して北京に遷都した。永楽帝である。以後、清朝滅亡まで都は北京城に置かれることとなる。 明代は皇帝の権力がもっとも強大になった時代で、美術ももっぱら権力者の嗜好(しこう)にあったものが行われた。画院での絵画は厳しい制約の下で描かれたため、個性的な創作活動は不可能な状態だった。洪武年間（1368～1398）の画院には趙原(ちょうげん)、沈希遠(ちんきえん)、相礼(そうれい)らが、宣徳年間（1426～1435）には載文進(たいぶんしん)を中心に李在、周文靖(しゅうぶんせい)ら浙派(せっぱ)とよばれた人々がいた。浙派はのち呉偉、張路、蒋嵩(しょうすう)ら在野の画人の間でも受け継がれ、明末には藍英(らんえい)、謝時臣(しゃじしん)らが出た。また明中期には市井の職業画家であった仇英(きゅうえい)と詩文書画ともに優れた唐寅(とういん)の2人が出て院派とよばれ、とくに仇英の風俗画は後世多くの人々に賞賛される。明の後半になると画壇の中心は文人に移るが、その端緒となったのが蘇州(そしゅう)の沈周と文徴明(ぶんちょうめい)だった。また明末の文人画家莫是龍(ばくしりょう)、董其昌(とうきしょう)らは、院体画を北宗画、文人画を南宗画として尚南貶北(しょうなんへんほく)論を唱え、浙江出身者の多かった画院の画家を浙派として非難し、蘇州出身者の多かった文人画家を呉派として擁護した。とくに董其昌の影響は強く、呉派の優勢を絶対的なものにした。 工芸では景徳鎮官窯の隆盛が特筆される。明初には元代に始まった青花、釉裏紅(ゆうりこう)が引き続き制作されたが、15世紀初頭ごろから一段と優れた色彩が現れ、また器形にもさまざまなものが現れた。中期以降、釉薬の精製技術が進歩し、青花、赤絵、五彩などはより洗練され、また金彩を加えた金襴手(きんらんで)などもつくられた。 1955年以来、北京の北郊で永楽帝以降13人の皇帝陵、いわゆる明の十三陵のうちいくつかの陵墓の発掘が計画され、万暦(ばんれき)帝の定陵がすでに発掘を終えた。また各地で王族の墓も発掘され、その精巧な副葬品から当時の工芸技術の水準がきわめて高かったことがわかる。 ［吉村 怜］ 清代清(しん)（1616～1912）は満洲族出身の王朝で、内乱に乗じて一気に北京を占領、1683年には台湾攻略を終え、中国全土への支配を確立した。清は多く明朝の制度を採用したが、文化の面でも中国の伝統文化を尊重し、漢族の知識階級を優遇した。美術においてもあらゆる方面で明の様式は継承された。絵画では、明末に董其昌によって打ち立てられた呉派南画の隆盛は引き続き画壇の主流となったが、その典型主義もともに受け継いだ。この派は、王時敏(おうじびん)、王鑑、王翬(おうき)、王原祁(おうげんき)、呉歴、惲格(うんかく)らいわゆる四王呉惲に代表される。四王が南画の形式主義のうちに終わったのに比べ、呉惲の2人は晩年南画のマンネリズムを脱し独自の個性で作画した。呉はイエズス会への入会が、惲は没骨(もっこつ)の着色花鳥画の制作がその転機となった。とくに惲の様式は常州派を形成し、馬元馭(ばげんぎょ)、鄒一桂(すういっけい)、銭大昕(せんたいきん)らを出した。日本の江戸期の絵画に大きな影響を与えた沈詮(しんせん)もこの派の人だった。 南画は画院で受け入れられ、南北画を折衷した袁(えん)派、イタリア人ジュゼッペ・カスティリオーネ（郎世寧(ろうせいねい)）のもたらした西洋画法などとともに清朝院体画を形成する一派となった。しかし、これら各派はいずれも発展することなしに、同治（1862～1874）ごろには急速に衰えていった。 清初の在野では、異民族支配に抵抗し、自らの悲憤を表現した八大山人(はちだいさんじん)（朱耷(しゅとう)）、石濤(せきとう)ら明朝ゆかりの画人が注目される。また揚州では塩商など大富豪に支えられた多くの文人や学者が活躍した。金農、羅聘(らへい)、鄭燮(ていしょう)、李方膺(りほうよう)、汪士慎(おうししん)、高翔(こうしょう)、黄慎(こうしん)、李鱓(りぜん)、閔貞(びんてい)、高鳳翰(こうほうかん)ら揚州八怪とよばれた文人画家は、形式にとらわれず自らの個性を表現した独創的な作画を行った。彼らは特別一派を形成したわけでもなく、八怪の人名も一定しないが、共通して揚州を中心に活躍した在野の画家であった。汪士慎は水仙・梅、李方膺は竹・蘭(らん)・梅、鄭燮は竹と、元来素人(しろうと)の彼らは同一の画題で作画することが多かった。八怪の主観主義的絵画は、杭州の華嵓(かがん)、咸豊(かんぽう)の趙之謙(ちょうしけん)、清末の呉俊卿(ごしゅんけい)らに受け継がれていった。 明末にとだえていた景徳鎮官窯は清代に再建され、1683年（康煕22）監陶官蔵応選(ぞうおうせん)の着任以後大きく発展した。続いて1727年（雍正5）着任の年希堯(きぎょう)、1735年着任の唐英ら雍正(ようせい)・乾隆(けんりゅう)の監陶官の働きによって、景徳鎮官窯は絶頂期に達したのであった。 ［吉村 怜］ 現代の美術アヘン戦争から1949年の新中国誕生までの100余年にわたる動乱のなかで、清代の文人画の伝統は、趙之謙、任伯年(じんはくねん)らに受け継がれ、辛亥(しんがい)革命以後は、その流れをくんだ呉俊卿、斉白石(さいはくせき)らによって命脈を保持してきた。 一方、清末から民国にかけて将来された西洋美術も、中国美術に一定の影響をもたらした。少なからぬ画家たちが、西欧近代の「写実」の目で自然や人間を見つめるようになった。この風潮の延長線上に、水墨画の伝統的な技法で、戦火に追われて流浪する人民の悲惨な姿を描いた蒋兆和(しょうちょうわ)の『流人(るにん)図』（1940）がある。 1919年の五・四運動を契機として、美術界にも革新の気運がおこってきた。1920年代、文学者魯迅(ろじん)は、上海(シャンハイ)にあって精力的にヨーロッパ美術の紹介に努め、旧ソ連やドイツの版画集を出版し、頻繁に美術評論を発表する一方、木刻画講習会を組織して多くの青年画家を育成した。ここから、古元(こげん)、力群(りきぐん)、彦涵(げんかん)、汪刃峰(おうじんほう)、李樺(りか)など、のちに革命闘争のなかで版画を武器として活躍する優れた版画家が輩出した。こうして中国の木版画は革命闘争のなかでしだいに独特の様式を形成していき、中国の美術史においてかつてなかった新しい造形を創造し、今日の中国美術を代表する分野の一つとなっている。 新中国成立以後、芸術は「人民のために奉仕する」というスローガンによって、国画、洋画、版画、彫刻など美術のすべての分野にわたって、革命闘争や社会主義建設を主題とする、啓蒙(けいもう)的な作品が数多く制作され、山水や花鳥を題材とする国画は一時低調であった。1956年に、芸術・学術活動の活性化を意図した「百花斉放・百家争鳴」の方針が打ち出されたが、その後の政治状況の変化によって、この運動は実質展開を阻まれ、美術界にも政治宣伝臭の強い、硬直な作品が氾濫(はんらん)した。1976年に「文化大革命」体制が崩壊すると、ふたたび「百花斉放・百家争鳴」が叫ばれ、国画の世界でも、今日の視点で中国画の伝統を見直す気運が高まり、新国画ともいうべき多様なスタイルの風景・人物画が現れてきている。洋画・版画も世界の美術動向に目を向け始めた画家たちによってさまざまな試みがなされている。 ［落合 茂］ 『米沢嘉圃・鈴木進編『世界美術大系8～10 中国美術』（1963～1965・講談社）』▽『座右宝刊行会編『原色世界の美術15 中国』（1971・小学館）』▽『M・サリバン著、新藤武弘訳『中国美術史』（1973・新潮社）』▽『宮川寅雄著『図説中国の歴史12 中国美術の流れ』（1977・講談社）』▽『長廣敏雄編『世界の文化史蹟7 中国の石窟寺』（1969・講談社）』▽『吉村怜・吉村ちさ子著『中国美術の旅』（1980・美術出版社）』▽『鈴木敬著『中国絵画史 上』（1981・吉川弘文館）』▽『中国外文出版社編『中国陶磁史』（1981・美乃美）』 [参照項目] | | | |©Shogakukan"> 中国のおもな遺跡分布 新石器時代（紀元前2650～前2350年ころ） 馬家窯文化 半山類型 高さ40×幅40.6cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 彩陶罐 後列の左右に卣、中央に尊、その間に二つの觶があり、外側左に斝、右に盉が並ぶ。中列は、左から爵、觚、角。前列は、形の異なる二つの觶の間に斗が置かれている。殷～西周時代（紀元前11世紀後半）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 祭祀用の青銅器 前漢代（紀元前2世紀） 直径26.5cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 黒地赤絵雲気文漆碗 舞女。前漢代（紀元前2世紀） 彩絵陶 高さ53.3cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 陶俑 後漢代（25～220年ころ） 直径23.5cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 神獣文青銅鏡 像高約14m。右は脇侍如来立像。石窟の前壁が崩れ、像が露出している。世界文化遺産「雲崗石窟」の一部（中国・2001年登録） 中国 大同©Shogakukan"> 雲崗石窟第20洞露坐大仏 北魏代（470～480年ころ） 砂岩 高さ146.1cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 雲崗石窟第25洞の交脚菩薩像 奉先寺洞の本尊。高宗の発願により675年に完成した。唐代彫刻の最高峰を極めた秀麗な石仏である。全高17.14m 世界文化遺産「竜門石窟」の一部（中国・2000年登録） 中国 洛陽市南郊©Shogakukan"> 竜門石窟奉先寺洞盧遮那仏坐像 13世紀の拓本。作品部各24.4×12.7cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 王羲之『十七帖』 おそらく隋代（581～618年） 石灰石 顔料 高さ100.8cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 彩絵石彫観世音菩薩像 部分。唐代（750年ころ） 巻物 縦30.8cm（巻物の長さ11.4m）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 韓幹『照夜白図』 唐代（7世紀後半～8世紀前半） 唐三彩 高さ44.5cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 仕女騎馬俑 宋代（10世紀後半～13世紀） 高さ34cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 青磁直頸瓶 部分。北宋代（1080年ころ） 絹 巻物 縦35.6cm（巻物の長さ853.8cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 郭煕『樹色平遠図巻』 部分。北宋代（1095年ころ） 巻物 縦31.1cm（巻物の長さ556.9cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 米芾『呉江舟中詩巻』 部分。南宋代（1200年以前） 巻物 縦27.6cm（巻物の長さ747.2cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 米友仁『雲山図』 南宋代（13世紀初め） 絹 作品部24.8×21.3cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 夏珪『山市晴嵐図』 団扇絵。南宋代（13世紀初め） 絹 作品部25.1×26.7cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 馬遠『月下賞梅図』 部分。南宋代（13世紀中ごろ） 縦33.2cm（巻物の長さ993.6cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 趙孟堅『水仙図巻』 鈞窯 元代（12世紀後半～13世紀） 澱青釉 直径19.1cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 天青釉鉢 景徳鎮窯 元代（14世紀） 高さ29.8cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 青白磁菩薩像 部分。元代（1295年ころ） 巻物 縦23.2cm（巻物の長さ1063.8cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 銭選『蘭亭観鵝図巻』 部分。元代（1310年ころ） 巻物 縦26.8cm（巻物の長さ781.5cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 趙孟頫『雙松平遠図』 元代後期（1367年ころ） 作品部67.9×34.3cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 王蒙『丹崖翠壑図』 元代（1372年） 作品部94.6×35.9cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 倪瓚『虞山林壑図』 元代（14世紀） 大きさ17cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 剔紅牡丹文漆盤 明代（14世紀後半） 作品部95.3×35.2cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 趙原『晴川送客図』 部分。明～清代初期 巻物 縦27.9cm（巻物の長さ928.7cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 李在『董巨馬夏合風山水図』 明代（15世紀） 作品部91.3×41.9cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 周文靖『漁隠図』 明代（16世紀） 作品部148.9×98.7cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 張路『観画図』 扇面画。明代（16世紀） 高さ17.8×幅50.2cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 謝時臣『隠居図』 部分。明代（1535～1560年） 絹 巻物 縦32.4cm（巻物の長さ543cm）シカゴ美術研究所所蔵"> 仇英『桃花源図』 部分。明代（15世紀終わり～16世紀初め） 巻物 絹 縦32.4cm（巻物の長さ778cm）メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 唐寅『山水八段図巻』 明代（1475年） 作品部152.4×62.9cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 沈周『秋林間釣図』 明代（1543年） 作品部95.3×45.7cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 文徴明『楼居図』 明代（1581年） 作品部119.1×41cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 莫是龍『倣黄公望山水図』 清代（1666年） 作品部134.6×56.5cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 王時敏『倣黄公望山水図』 清代（17世紀） 絵本 29.8×31.4cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 王鑑『倣古山水図』 清代（1669年） 作品部112.7×35.9cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 王翬『倣李成雪霽図』 清代（1695年） 作品部108.6×51.4cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 王原祁『倣呉鎮山水図』 清代（1702年） 作品部187.3×90.2cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 朱耷『二鷹図』 清代（1694年ころ） 作品部222.9×76.2cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 石濤『風雨竹図』 清代（1773年） 作品部80×54.6cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 羅聘『篠園飲酒図』 清代（1753年） 四幅対 各272.4×68.6cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 鄭燮『遠山煙竹図』 清代（1867年） 作品部各181.9×48.1cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 趙之謙『篆書五言対聯』 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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