Chinese clothing

Japanese: 中国服 - ちゅうごくふく

Traditional Chinese clothing. What we call Chinese clothing in Japan originally referred to the Manchu-style Hu clothing that was adopted after the Qing dynasty, and the Han people called it qipao. It is a one-piece dress with long hem and round sleeves, and has long slits on both sides from the waist down, which is convenient for horseback riding. Originally, it was worn with a leather belt and trousers underneath. However, today's qipao, especially for women, omits both the leather belt and the trousers.

[Akira Ishiyama]

history

Bone sewing needles have been excavated from ruins of the Shang dynasty dating back to around 1400 B.C. along with painted pottery. Oracle bone inscriptions have also been found at ruins from the same Shang dynasty, from which characters for thread, mulberry, silkworm, and silk can be read, proving that sericulture and silk weaving were already taking place. By the late Shang dynasty around 1100 B.C., jade figurines (figurines made of beautiful stone) and stone figures excavated from Anyang and other sites have made it possible to infer the clothing worn at that time. These indicate that clothing was in two parts, consisting of a short top with kumi-eri (traditional Japanese collar) and tube sleeves, and a pair of trouser-style hakama or mo, and that warriors had designs such as thunderbolt patterns applied to their collars and cuffs.

From the mid-Zhou dynasty, especially during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, classical texts such as the Four Books and Five Classics (Four Books = Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, Analects of Confucius, and Mencius; Five Classics = Book of Changes, Book of Songs, Book of Documents, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Book of Rites) were produced, and records of the clothing worn by the ancient Han people gradually became clearer. Meanwhile, the number of visual materials, such as excavated artifacts such as jade figurines, ceramic figurines, and painted wooden figurines, as well as silk paintings of human figures, is also gradually increasing. According to these, it is known that the Zhou dynasty also basically wore a two-part upper and lower garment, just like the Shang dynasty, from such passages as "If you are Guan Zhong, put your collar on the left" in the Analects of Confucius, "Green clothing and yellow skirts" in the Book of Songs, and "The clothing should be of the main color, the skirt of an intermediate color" in the Jade Mo chapter of the Book of Rites. However, in the Spring and Autumn period (8th to 5th century BC), people began to wear a loose, formal garment called a shin'i, tied with a wide sash, and official robes were decorated with 12 ornaments, and different crowns were used to show class differences. Thus, by the end of the Warring States period (5th to 3rd century BC), the style of clothing generally became closer to that of the early Han dynasty. However, the clothing of the Qin dynasty (3rd century BC), which preceded the Han dynasty, followed the Zhou system and wore a short, deep, single-layered garment called a shifuku for morning wear. As for the clothing of warriors, there are 530 soldier figures excavated in the burial pit on the east side of the Lishan Mausoleum, the tomb of the First Emperor in Shaanxi Province, which was excavated in 1974.

The Han dynasty is divided into the Western Han period (202 BC-8 AD), whose capital was in Chang'an, and the Eastern Han period (25-220 AD), whose capital was in Luoyang. The clothing of the Western Han period was basically a continuation of the Qin dynasty, and all of them were loose, deep-fitting garments with wide sleeves, worn with a large sash. This fact is also evident from the artifacts excavated in 1972 from the Mawangdui Han tomb in Changsha, Hunan Province. The men's clothing shown in the literature includes embroidered robes, Confucian scholars' robes, and red robes and susou, which consist of a red top and a white skirt, while the women's clothing includes blue robes and indigo skirts, and navy blue robes and susou, which consist of a blue top and an indigo skirt. Warriors wore tight-fitting short robes with sleeves and loose-fitting trousers and hakama. As this type of clothing was convenient for work, similar styles were also seen by farmers and workers to a greater or lesser extent. The first Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty (reigned 25-57) established the clothing color with red as the highest ranking, and the successor Emperor Ming (reigned 57-75) established the first ever crown and clothing system. According to this system, eight types of ritual clothing and eleven types of morning clothing were designated for men, and deep temple clothing, silkworm clothing, morning clothing, and wedding clothing were designated for women according to class. Hu clothing was already seen among warriors in the Warring States period, but it was an adaptation of the clothing of the nomadic horse-riding people who lived in the northeast. However, Hu clothing at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty was of Western Regions and Iranian origin. Thus, exchanges with the Western Regions became more active from the end of the Warring States period, and Emperor Ling (reigned 168-189) at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty was known to have been particularly fond of Western cultural art. Silk fabrics were also used in trade with the West from early on, but as national unification progressed during the Han Dynasty, its production improved and it was exported in large quantities. It also became more varied and colorful, with thin fabrics, twill, brocade, and embroidery being the norm. The elegance of Han clothing is particularly evident in the long-sleeved robes worn by female dancers, and this style has been passed down to the costumes of Chinese Peking Opera. On the other hand, Han clothing also had a major influence on Korean Lelang and Japanese clothing, as can be inferred from typical characteristics such as wide sleeves and long hems. In this way, Han culture showed international development, both East and West.

It is well known that the Gishiwajinden (Records of the Wa People) from the Three Kingdoms period (Wei, Wu, Shu; 220-280) describes the clothing of the Wa people in the second half of the 3rd century. The period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (c. 440-589), also known as the Six Dynasties in art history, was a time when the three civilizations of Persia, India, and China fused together in both northern and southern China on a world-historical level, resulting in a magnificent fusion. Hu clothing became the formal attire of the Northern Dynasties, and warriors also wore it in the Southern Dynasties. Haniwa warrior figures from the Kofun period in Japan show a type of Hu clothing from this period. In addition, the "Lady's Charm Painting" (Jo Shi Xin Zu), which is said to have been painted by Gu Kaizhi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (Toshin), which was the early Southern Dynasties, depicts a seated figure of a woman from this period, which shows that up until that point, people had been living a sedentary lifestyle. It was only after the Northern Dynasties were established within China that people began to live on the floor and clothing became centered around Hu clothing, but ancient clothing remained as ceremonial clothing.

The Sui and Tang dynasties (581-907), which had a tremendous influence on Japan's Asuka and Nara periods, were Han dynasties with capitals in Chang'an and Luoyang, which had long been dominated by northern tribes such as the Northern Wei, and so clothing was strongly influenced by the Western Regions and the North. Thus, men wore a Marueri robe over a Jiaolin robe and hakama, while women wore a short robe, a long skirt, and a Hibaku. These can be seen in the murals of Dunhuang, the San-sai glazed pottery figurines, and the famous murals in the tomb of Princess Yongtai. On the other hand, during the Tang dynasty, not only did Hu clothing and horse riding become popular among young men and women due to exchanges with the Western Regions, but the lifestyle itself became internationalized, and dyeing and weaving crafts also developed greatly. This is also known from the treasures of Japan's Shosoin Repository. During the Song dynasty (960-1279), the Liao people occupied Inner Mongolia in the north, and the Jin people occupied Manchuria, so culture generally became conservative and the dress code was reorganized. As a result, it was simpler than the Tang dynasty, and the clothing of ordinary people also became more liberal as regional cities developed. This dress code remains in Korea along with the influence of Confucianism, and these characteristics were passed down to the style of monk's clothing in Japan by the monks who entered the Song dynasty at that time. During the Southern Song dynasty, the capital was in Jiangnan, so dyeing and weaving developed greatly, and luxurious brocades, embroidery, and satin were born. The people of the Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties were nomads of the desert and grasslands, so Hu clothing was generally the main style, but emperors and aristocrats used the traditional wide-sleeved style.

As the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) was a Han Chinese dynasty, it banned the Hu clothing style of short sleeved robes and trousers, and reverted to the original Han clothing style, with robes as formal attire and dragon patterns, while ordinary clothing also featured peony and other patterns and became more colorful. Women also began to wear traditional attire. The following Qing Dynasty (1616-1912) was ruled by the Jurchen people of Manchuria, and so they wore Hu clothing-style robes with long sleeves and slits on both sides. As mentioned at the beginning, the Han people called these qipao (flag robes). This name comes from the fact that all the Manchu people were incorporated into the Eight Banner Corps. The trousers were called kutsu (pants), the long jacket was called taqowar (pants), the haori was called maqowar (coat), the vest was called peixin (back spine), and they were forced to style their hair in the Manchu style. These clothes continued to be worn for a while in the Republic of China (1912-1949) after the Xinhai Revolution, and they are still worn as formal attire by modern women. However, the majority of the time they have been replaced by Western clothing, which is called Zhongshan clothing after Sun Yat-sen's pen name and is characterized by a tied-up collar and a Mao hat. Today, this is what is called Mao's clothing or worker's clothing.

[Akira Ishiyama]

``Oriental Clothing History Review'' by Masatoshi Sugimoto (1979, Bunka Publishing Bureau) ▽ ``Materials on Clothing Patterns of the Han Dynasty'' by Zhang Suyuan (1963, Hong Kong, Taiping Book Bureau) ▽ ``Research on Ancient Chinese Clothing'' by Shen Congwen (1981, Hong Kong, Commercial Insho)''

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国の伝統的な服装。なお、わが国でいう中国服とは元来、清(しん)朝以後に採用された満州式の胡服(こふく)のことで、漢人はこれを旗袍(チーパオ)とよんだ。盤領筒袖(あげくびつつそで)の裾(すそ)の長いワンピース形式で、乗馬に好都合なように、腰から下は両脇(わき)で長いスリットになっており、本来は革帯を締めて下にはかならずズボンをはいた。しかし、今日の、とりわけ婦人用の旗袍では、革帯もズボンも省略されている。

［石山　彰］

歴史

紀元前1400年ごろの殷(いん)代の遺跡からは彩色土器とともに骨製の縫い針が出土している。また、同じころの殷代の遺跡からは甲骨文字が発見され、糸、桑、蚕、帛(はく)などの文字が読み取られることから、すでに養蚕絹織が行われていた事実が知られる。前1100年ごろの殷代後期になると、安陽などから出土した玉俑(ぎょくよう)（美石でできた人形）や石人(せきじん)などによって、そのころの服装も推定できるようになる。それによると、交領(くみえり)（和服衿(えり)）筒袖の短上衣にズボン形式の袴(はかま)か裳(も)の二部形式で、武人は襟や袖口には雷文などの文様を施していたことがわかる。

　周代中期以降、わけても春秋・戦国時代には、四書五経（四書＝大学、中庸、論語、孟子(もうし)、五経＝易経、詩経、書経、春秋、礼記(らいき)）などの古典書が生まれ、古代漢民族の服装記録もしだいに明らかになってくる。一方、玉俑、陶俑、彩色木俑などの出土品や絹絵人像など、形象資料もしだいに数を増してくる。それらによると、周代も基本的には殷代同様、交領の上下二部形式の衣服を着用したことが、たとえば『論語』の「管仲なりせば衽(おくみ)を左にせん」や、『詩経』の「緑衣黄裳(りょくいこうも)」、また『礼記』玉藻篇(へん)の「衣は正色、裳は間色」などによって知られる。ところが春秋時代（前8～前5世紀）になると、深衣という緩やかな一部形式の衣服に幅広の帯を締めて着用し、公服には12章を施すとともに、冠をも異にして階級差を表した。こうして戦国時代（前5～前3世紀）末になると、服装の様式は総じて漢代初期に近くなってくる。しかし、漢に先だつ秦(しん)代（前3世紀）の服装は、周の制度を踏襲して、朝服には祗服(しふく)という短い深衣状の単衣が着られた。また武人の服装については、1974年に発掘された陝西(せんせい)省の始皇帝の墓、酈(り)山陵東側の陪葬(ばいそう)坑出土の530体の兵俑がある。

　漢は、長安に都した前漢時代（前202～後8）と、洛陽(らくよう)に都した後漢(ごかん)時代（25～220）に分けられるが、前漢時代の服装は基本的には秦代の踏襲であり、いずれも広袖の緩やかな深衣状の衣服で、着用にあたっては大帯を締めた。この事実は1972年、湖南省長沙(ちょうさ)で発掘された馬王堆(まおうたい)漢墓からの出土品によってもわかる。文献に表れる男子服には縫い取りのある繍衣(しゅうい)、儒者の袍(ほう)である儒服、朱の上衣と白の裳からなる朱衣素裳などがあり、女子服には青い上衣と縹(はなだ)色の裳からなる青衣縹裳(ひょうも)や、紺の上衣と黒い裳からなる紺衣皀(はく)裳などがあった。武人は筒袖のぴったりした短衣に緩やかなズボン袴褶(こしゅう)をはいた。こうした服装は労働に便利なところから、大なり小なり類型は農人、工人にもみられた。後漢時代の初代光武帝（在位25～57）は赤を最高位とする服色を制定し、続く明帝(みんてい)（在位57～75）は史上最初の冠服制を定めた。それによると、男子には祭祀(さいし)服8種、朝服11種が、女子には深衣の廟服(びょうふく)、蚕服、朝服、婚服が階級別に定められた。胡服は戦国時代の武人間にすでにみられたが、それらは東北に居住した遊牧騎馬民族の衣服を取り入れたものであった。しかし、後漢末の胡服は西域(せいいき)やイラン系のものであった。このように西域との交流は戦国時代末から活発化しており、後漢末の霊帝（在位168～189）などは、とりわけ西域の文物を愛好したことで知られる。絹織物も早くから西方との交易に使われたが、漢代になって全国統一が進むと、その生産も向上し、大量に輸出される一方、薄物、綾(あや)、錦(にしき)、刺しゅうなど種類も多くなり、色彩も豊かになった。漢代衣服の優雅さは、とりわけ舞女の長袖衣に著しいが、この様式は中国の京劇の衣装にも受け継がれている。他方、漢代の服装が朝鮮の楽浪(らくろう)やわが国の服装にも大きく影響していることは、広袖裾長といった類型的特徴からも類推できよう。このように漢代の文化は、東西にわたって国際的な展開をみせた。

　三国時代（魏(ぎ)、呉(ご)、蜀(しょく)。220～280）の『魏志倭人伝』(ぎしわじんでん)が3世紀後半の倭人の服装を伝えていることは著名である。美術史上で六朝(りくちょう)時代ともよばれる南北朝時代（440ころ～589）はペルシア、インド、中国の三つの文明が、この期を契機として華北と江南の両地で世界史的な融合が行われ、みごとな結実をみた時代なのであった。胡服は北朝の正装となり、武人は南朝でもそれを着用した。わが国古墳時代の埴輪(はにわ)武人像は、この期の胡服との類型を示している。また南朝初期にあたる東晋(とうしん)の顧愷之(こがいし)が描いたと伝えられる『女史箴図(じょししんず)』には、この期の婦人座像が描かれており、それまでは座式生活であったことがわかる。胡床生活に変わり、衣服も胡服系中心になるのは、北朝の王朝が中国内部に成立して以後のことであり、古代服は儀礼服に残っていった。

　わが国の飛鳥(あすか)・奈良時代に絶大な影響を及ぼした隋(ずい)・唐時代（581～907）は、長く北魏など北方民族に支配された長安や洛陽を都とした漢民族の王朝であったところから、服装にも西域や北方の影響が強かった。こうして服装も男子は交領の衣と袴の上に円領(まるえり)の袍を重ね、女子は短衣に長裙(ちょうくん)、それに披帛という姿になった。これらは敦煌(とんこう)の壁画や三彩釉陶俑(ゆうとうよう)のほか、有名な永泰公主墓壁画などにみることができる。他方、唐代は西域との交流によって若者男女に胡服や騎馬が流行しただけでなく、生活様式そのものも国際化し、染織工芸も大いに発達した。このことは、わが国正倉院の宝物によっても知られる。宋(そう)代（960～1279）は北方の内蒙(ないもう)を遼(りょう)、満州を金の両民族に占領されたため、文化は概して保守的になり、服制の再編も行われた。このため唐代よりも簡略化され、庶民の服装も地方都市の発達とともに解放的となった。この服制は儒教の影響とともに多く朝鮮に残る一方、こうした特性は当時入宋(にっそう)した僧たちによって、わが国の僧服の形式にも伝えられている。南宋時代は都が江南にあったため、染織は大いに発達し、豪華な錦や刺しゅう、繻子(しゅす)織などが生まれた。遼・金・元(げん)代の王朝は砂漠や草原の遊牧民出身であったため、総じて胡服中心となったが、帝王や貴族は伝統の広袖様式を用いた。

　明(みん)代（1368～1644）は漢民族の王朝であったことから、筒袖短衣にズボンといった胡服の形式を禁止し、服制を漢民族本来に戻して、正服は袍衣にし、竜文を施す一方、一般服にも牡丹(ぼたん)などの文様を施し、色彩も豊かになった。女性も衣裙(いくん)が中心になる。続く清(しん)代（1616～1912）の王朝は満州の女真族であるところから、胡服系の長い筒袖で両脇にスリットのある袍が着られた。漢人がこれを旗袍(チーパオ)といったことは冒頭にも記した。満州人はすべて八旗の軍団に編入されたところからこの名がある。ズボンは褲子(クーツ)、長上衣は打掛児(ターコワル)、羽織は馬掛児(マーコワル)、チョッキは背心(ペイシン)とよんで、頭髪も満州式が強要された。辛亥(しんがい)革命以後の中華民国（1912～1949）でも、しばらくはこの衣服が着られ、また現代の女性の晴れ着にもそれが残っている。しかし大半は洋服に変わり、これを孫文の号にちなんで中山(ちゅうざん)服といい、結め襟で人民帽を伴うのを特徴にしている。今日、人民服とか工人服とよばれるのもこれである。

［石山　彰］

『杉本正年著『東洋服装史論攷』（1979・文化出版局）』▽『張末元著『漢朝服装図様資料』（1963・香港・太平書局）』▽『沈従文著『中国古代服飾研究』（1981・香港・商務印書館）』

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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