Stone Buddha

Japanese: 石仏 - せきぶつ

A general term for Buddha statues carved into stone. There are three types: stone Buddhas carved into freestanding blocks of stone, cliff-carved Buddhas (maga-butsu) carved into rock faces, and cave Buddhas carved into the walls of rock caves. Based on the state of the carving, they can be divided into line engravings, thin-walled carvings (reliefs), reliefs in which the halo is carved out of a single piece of stone (half-walled carvings or high-walled carvings that expose the sides), and round carvings that are carved all the way to the back.

There are examples of stone Buddha statues in various parts of the Orient, and in India they have been made since around the time of Christ, when Buddhist sculpture began. In the Gandhara region of northwestern India (present-day Pakistan), stone Buddha statues in the style of Greek and Roman sculpture were made using blue-black schist, and in Mathura, central India, stone Buddha statues made from red sandstone (Mathura stone) that continued the tradition of ancient Indian sculpture continued until around the 5th century. In Amaravati, southern India, from the 2nd to 4th centuries, many dynamic free-standing marble statues were made. In Afghanistan, there were large stone Buddha statues in the Bamiyan caves, 55 and 38 meters tall, created around the 5th century, but both were destroyed and lost by the Taliban regime in 2001. There are few stone Buddha statues in Central Asia, due in part to a lack of high-quality stone, but in Southeast Asia, Gupta-style stone Buddha statues from the 7th to 11th centuries and stone Buddha statues at the Borobudur ruins in Java from the 8th to 9th centuries are well-known.

[Akio Sato]

China and Korea

China is blessed with stone materials such as sandstone and marble that are suitable for sculpture, and since the introduction of Buddhism, many large stone Buddha statues have been created in cave temples. Among them, the oldest (around 460) statues in the Five Caves of Tanyao, located in the Yungang Grottoes near Datong, the capital of the Northern Wei Dynasty, are colossal statues second only to those in Bamiyan, and their expression shows influences from India and Central Asia. By the time the Northern Wei capital was moved to Luoyang in 494, dozens of large caves had been built in Yungang, and after that, by the Tang Dynasty, large caves were opened one after another in Longmen, near Luoyang, as well as in Maijishan, Kyotangshan, and Tianlongshan. The Vairocana Buddha in the Fengxiansi Cave of the Longmen Grottoes, built by Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty in the mid-7th century, is the largest statue of the Tang Dynasty. Freestanding stone Buddha statues include those made of white jade (white marble) from Hebei and yellow-green limestone from the Xi'an area, but these are used as statues in wooden temples built on flat ground in cities and other areas.

Korea was blessed with granite, and cliff-carved Buddhas and free-standing stone Buddhas were created in various eras. Among the most famous relics from Baekje are the cliff-carved Buddha in Unsan-myeon, Seosan City, Chungcheongnam-do, the standing bodhisattva statue in Jangcang Valley, Namsan, Gyeongju (both from around the first half of the 7th century) and the statues at Seokguram Grotto in Gyeongju, which has a stone chamber structure (mid-8th century).

[Akio Sato]

Japan

Although not stone Buddha statues, strange stone relics thought to be based on ancient beliefs, such as the Kameishi, the Two-faced Stone, the Stone God, the Mt. Sumeru Stone, the Monkey Stone, and even the Human Head Stone at Koei-ji Temple in Takatori-cho, Nara Prefecture, can be found mainly in the Asuka region, but as stone Buddha statues, there are few examples due to a lack of stone materials suitable for their creation. The Sanzon statue (7th century) at Ishii-ji Temple in Nara, which is said to be the oldest stone Buddha statue in Japan, is a charming statue carved from half of a single stone, with the central statue seated on a square seat and the two standing attendants. The Koboke Sanzon in Hyogo Prefecture is also a half-carved stone Buddha thought to have been made around the 7th century, but since most ancient stone Buddha statues were made from tuff, the stone surface has a unique beauty, but it lacks durability and is often damaged. The Nara Zuto Stone Buddha Group, which is said to have been created by Roben, the founder of Todaiji Temple, during the Nara period, features a number of granite statues carved into a single block of stone around a stepped pyramid-shaped mound, with reliefs that are typical of the Nara period. There are also examples of stone Buddhas carved into the base of stone pagodas and in relief on the walls of caves from this time.

Relics from the early Heian period include the line-carved statues of Jigokudani in Nara and the stone Buddha statues of the Komasaka ruins in Shiga Prefecture, and the Komasaka cliff-carved Buddha in particular has been pointed out as having a close connection to Silla. In the late Heian period, cliff-carved Buddha statues were produced in Kitakyushu and other places. The Oita and Kumamoto regions, which use lava from Mount Aso, are Japan's largest repository of these Buddha statues, and the Usuki stone Buddha statues in Oita Prefecture are particularly famous, with the central Hoki stone Buddha statue of Amida Triad being an imposing cliff-carved Buddha with a nearly round body carved out of tuff. The seated statue of Acala at Nissekiji Temple in Toyama Prefecture is a thin-carved statue that stands three meters tall and may be related to Tateyama faith, but it is still revered today as Ooiwa Fudo. The stone Buddhas (Oya rock-carved Buddhas) at Oyaji Temple in Tochigi Prefecture are rare, carved into tuff (Oya stone) with a plaster surface, and the 4-meter-tall Thousand-Armed Kannon is particularly spectacular. The stone Buddhas (Izumizawa stone Buddhas) at Daihizan in Fukushima Prefecture are also noteworthy, although they are badly worn down.

During the Kamakura period, Buddhism had become deeply integrated among the general public, and as a result, the construction of stone Buddha statues, which were less expensive than other materials, became increasingly popular. Continuing from the previous period, rock-carved Buddha statues made of tuff were also made, but they were smaller in scale and of poorer quality. In contrast, technology improved and harder stone materials such as granite and andesite began to be used. The Hakone Stone Buddhas in Kanagawa Prefecture are one of the representative works of the andesite system. The Acala statue at Fudodo in Gunma Prefecture is a round-carved statue with an inscription dated 1251 (Kencho 3), but it is unique in that the upper and lower halves are made of different materials. The Jizo statue at Joko-ji Temple in Kamakura, with an inscription dated 1313 (Showa 2), is also noteworthy for being a round-carved statue, which was rarely seen until the Kamakura period. Other famous stone Buddha statues from this period include the Tono Stone Buddha Group in Kyoto Prefecture and the reliefs at Kuhon-ji Temple in Kanagawa Prefecture. After that, stone Buddha statues spread throughout the country using a variety of stone materials such as granite, andesite, tuff, and sandstone, but from the Muromachi period onwards, statues based on the beliefs of ordinary people were produced in large numbers, but they became more formulaic, and there are no outstanding artistic figures. In the Edo period, many group statues of the 500 Arhats, Jizo, Shomen Kongo (or Koshin) statues, and Bato Kannon statues based on folk beliefs were created.

[Akio Sato]

"Book of Books: Japanese Art 36: Stone Buddhas" by Kuno Ken (1975, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Continued Illustrated Encyclopedia of Japanese Stone Buddhas" edited by the Japan Stone Buddhas Association (1995, Kokusho Kankokai)" ▽ "Introduction to Stone Buddha Tours: How to View and Enjoy Them" edited by the Japan Stone Buddhas Association (1997, Daihorinkaku)" ▽ "How to Enjoy Stone Buddhas" edited by the Japan Stone Buddhas Association (1999, Shobunsha Publishing)" ▽ "Stone Buddhas and Stone Towers" edited by Ishii Susumu and Suito Makoto (2001, Yamakawa Publishing)"

Yungang Grottoes No. 20 Ro Seated Buddha
The statue is about 14m tall. On the right is a standing Buddha statue. The front wall of the cave has collapsed, exposing the statue. Part of the World Heritage "Yungang Grottoes" (China, registered in 2001) China Datong ©Shogakukan ">

Yungang Grottoes No. 20 Ro Seated Buddha

Seated Vairocana Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes
The principal image of the Bonseonsa Cave. It was completed in 675 at the request of Emperor Gaozong. It is a beautiful stone Buddha that represents the pinnacle of Tang Dynasty sculpture. Total height 17.14m Part of the Longmen Grottoes, a World Heritage Site (China, registered in 2000) Southern suburbs of Luoyang, China ©Shogakukan ">

Seated Vairocana Buddha statue at the Longmen Grottoes

Head Tower
Nationally designated historic site. Nara City, Nara Prefecture © Nara City Tourism Association ">

Head Tower

Usuki Stone Buddhas (Hoki Group 1)
The photo shows the Nyorai Sanzon statue. National Treasure, Nationally Designated Special Historic Site, Usuki City, Oita Prefecture © Tourism Oita Public Interest Incorporated Association ">

Usuki Stone Buddhas (Hoki Group 1)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

石に彫刻した仏像の総称。独立した石塊を彫り上げた石仏、岩壁に刻まれた磨崖(まがい)仏（摩崖仏）、石窟(せっくつ)内の壁面に彫られた石窟仏の3種がある。また彫出しの状態から、線刻、薄肉(うすにく)彫り（レリーフ）、光背をも一石から彫り出したりする浮彫り（半肉彫りや側面まで露出した高肉彫り）、背面まで彫り上げた丸彫りなどに分けられる。

　石仏は東洋各地に遺例があり、インドでは仏教彫刻の始まった紀元前後からつくられている。西北インド（現在のパキスタン）のガンダーラ地方では青黒い片岩(へんがん)を用いてギリシア・ローマ彫刻の流れをくむ石仏がつくられ、中央インドのマトゥラでは赤色砂岩（マトゥラ石）で古代インド彫刻の伝統を継いだ石仏が5世紀ごろまで続いた。また2～4世紀の南インドのアマラバティでは、大理石造の躍動的な独立像が多くつくられた。アフガニスタンには、5世紀ごろの制作になるバーミアン石窟の像高55メートルと38メートルの大石仏があったが、2001年タリバン政権によって2体とも破壊され、失われた。中央アジアでは良質の石がないためもあって石仏はほとんどないが、東南アジアでは7～11世紀のグプタ様式の石仏や、8～9世紀のジャワのボロブドゥール遺跡の石仏が著名である。

［佐藤昭夫］

中国・朝鮮

中国では彫刻に適した砂岩や大理石などの石材にも恵まれ、仏教伝来以来、石窟寺院内に大規模な石仏群が多数つくられた。なかでも北魏(ほくぎ)の都であった大同の近くの雲崗(うんこう)石窟のうち、もっとも古い（460ごろ）曇曜(どんよう)五窟の像はバーミアンに次ぐ巨像で、その表現にインドや中央アジアの影響がみられる。雲崗では494年の北魏の洛陽(らくよう)遷都までの間に、大きなものだけで数十に及ぶ石窟が造営されたが、以後唐代までに洛陽に近い竜門をはじめ、麦積山(ばくせきざん)、響堂山、天竜山などに次々と大石窟が開かれた。7世紀なかばの唐の高宗の建造になる竜門石窟奉先寺洞(ほうせんじどう)の盧遮那(るしゃな)仏は、唐代最大の像である。独立した石仏では河北の白玉（白大理石）、西安(せいあん)付近の黄華石（黄緑色の石灰岩）の像などがあるが、これらは都市などの平地に建てられた木造寺院の像として用いられている。

　朝鮮では花崗(かこう)岩にも恵まれて各時代に磨崖仏や独立石仏がつくられたが、百済(くだら)の遺品として忠清南道瑞山市雲山面の磨崖仏、新羅(しらぎ)の遺品として慶州南山長倉谷の菩薩(ぼさつ)立像（ともに7世紀前半ごろ）、石室構造をもつ慶州石窟庵(あん)の諸像（8世紀なかば）が著名である。

［佐藤昭夫］

日本

石仏ではないが古代信仰に基づくものと考えられる亀石、二面石、石神、須弥山(しゅみせん)石、猿石、さらに奈良県高取町光永寺の人頭石などの怪異な石造遺物が飛鳥(あすか)地方を中心にみられるが、石仏としては、その制作に適した石材が乏しいせいもあって作例は少ない。日本の石仏最古の遺品とされる奈良石位(いしい)寺の三尊像（7世紀）は、一石の半面を用い、方座に倚座(いざ)した中尊と立像の両脇侍(わきじ)を彫り出した表情の愛らしい像である。兵庫県の古法華(こぼっけ)三尊も7世紀ごろの作とみられる半肉彫りの石仏だが、古代の石仏の多くは凝灰岩でつくられたため、石肌には独特の美しさがあるが耐久性に欠け損傷もひどい。奈良時代に東大寺の開山良弁(ろうべん)によってつくられたとされる奈良頭塔(ずとう)石仏群は、いかにも奈良時代風の豊麗さをもつ浮彫りで、階段ピラミッド形の墳丘の周りに花崗岩の一石彫りの像をいくつも配置している。またこのころには石製層塔の基部に石仏を彫り出したものや、岩窟内の壁面に浮彫りした例もある。

　平安前期の遺品としては奈良地獄谷の線彫りの像や滋賀県狛坂(こまさか)廃寺石仏があり、とくに狛坂磨崖仏は新羅との密接な関係が指摘されている。平安後期には北九州をはじめ各地で磨崖仏が制作された。阿蘇(あそ)山の溶岩を利用した大分・熊本地方は日本最大の宝庫であるが、大分県の臼杵(うすき)石仏はとくに著名で、中心になるホキ石仏の阿弥陀(あみだ)三尊は凝灰岩から丸彫りに近く彫り出された堂々たる体躯(たいく)の磨崖仏である。富山県日石寺(にっせきじ)の不動明王坐像は高さ3メートルに及ぶ薄肉彫りの像で、立山信仰との関係も考えられるが、大岩(おおいわ)不動として今日も尊崇されている。栃木県大谷寺(おおやじ)の石仏群（大谷磨崖仏）は凝灰岩（大谷石）に浮彫りし漆食(しっくい)（塑土(そど)）で表面をつくった珍しいもので、なかでも4メートルの千手観音は壮観である。福島県大悲山(だいひざん)の石仏群（泉沢石仏）も摩損が著しいが注目される。

　鎌倉時代には仏教が一般民衆のなかに深く溶け込んだ結果、ほかの材料よりも費用的に負担のかからない石仏の造立は急激に盛んになる。前代に引き続いて凝灰岩製の磨崖仏もつくられたが、規模も小形化して作品の質も劣ったものになったのに比し、技術的には向上して花崗岩や安山岩などの硬い石材が用いられるようになった。神奈川県の箱根石仏は安山岩系統の代表作の一つである。群馬県不動堂の不動明王像は建長(けんちょう)3年（1251）の銘をもつ丸彫り像であるが、上下の半身が別材からなる特異な造法をとっている。鎌倉浄光寺の正和(しょうわ)2年（1313）在銘の地蔵像も、鎌倉時代まではほとんどみられなかった丸彫り像である点が注目される。京都府の当尾(とうのお)石仏群、神奈川県九品(くほん)寺の浮彫り像なども、この時代の石仏として著名である。以後、石仏は花崗岩、安山岩、凝灰岩、砂岩など種々の石材を使って全国的に広がっていくが、室町時代以降は庶民信仰に基づく像が多作されながら形式化が進み、美術的に目だったものはない。江戸時代には五百羅漢の群像や、民間信仰的な地蔵、青面(しょうめん)金剛（あるいは庚申(こうしん)像）、馬頭観音像などが多数つくられている。

［佐藤昭夫］

『久野健著『ブック・オブ・ブックス日本の美術36　石仏』（1975・小学館）』▽『日本石仏協会編『続日本石仏図典』（1995・国書刊行会）』▽『日本石仏協会編『石仏巡り入門――見方・愉しみ方』（1997・大法輪閣）』▽『日本石仏協会編『石仏の楽しみ方』（1999・晶文社出版）』▽『石井進・水藤真監修『石仏と石塔』（2001・山川出版社）』