Discipline

Japanese: しつけ

It means to teach a child proper manners and customs for daily life, and mainly refers to early education in the home. However, in the past, this word had a broader meaning, and it did not mean simply to teach proper manners, but to "grow a child into an adult while correcting their character," and its scope was not limited to childhood education. For example, in some parts of Nagano Prefecture, getting married was called "hitoninaru" (becoming an adult), but from the parents' point of view, this was called "shitsukeru." In addition, there was something called "shitsuke promise," which meant working for free from childhood on the condition that one would be independent in the future, the place where one marries was called "shitsukesho," rice planting and sowing were called "crop shitsuke," and even "shitsuke thread" to prevent kimono from losing their shape. All of these things meant acquiring a certain form as a normal person or thing. Kunio Yanagita said, "The rule of discipline is not to teach anything about normal things, but to admonish or admonish when someone says or does something that is not normal." In other words, discipline means making someone a proper adult by having them do something in practice and correcting their shortcomings, rather than teaching them. The character for discipline is a Japanese character, and it is said to have been created with the meaning of giving them the elegant behavior appropriate for a samurai and maintaining a beautiful posture.

[Yoshiharu Iijima]

The purpose of discipline and when to learn it

The purpose of discipline is to raise children to become fully-fledged members of society, but in the past, the person in charge and the place of discipline varied depending on the child's childhood, adolescence, and adolescence. Childhood is the time to build the foundations for independence, and children were primarily trained at home by their grandparents (elderly people) in eating, excretory behavior, sleep, cleanliness and organization, language, play and helping out, and safety education. During this period, parents were busy with farm work and other activities, so children were looked after by elderly people and older siblings, and unconsciously acquired the traditions of everyday life, and gradually picked up language and everyday customs by listening to linguistic traditions such as proverbs and old tales.

From about age 7, children enter adolescence, when they begin to become aware of themselves as members of the family, and actually follow their parents in learning production techniques, and prepare to join the community through activities and play with children's groups and playmates. During this period, they leave home and go to work sites such as the fields to learn skills by following their parents' work, or they try it themselves first and have their shortcomings corrected, and so learn skills. Also, unlike infancy, children are strictly taught social rules such as greetings, promises, and etiquette, and they gradually learn production techniques, starting with light tasks such as "seven-nosed picking" and gradually moving on to physically demanding tasks such as carrying night soil.

Adolescence is the period from when a young person joins a group at around age 15 until marriage, during which time they aim to become fully-fledged members of society, learn the rules of the community, how to choose a marriage partner, and have sexual experiences. Discipline during this period was usually provided by seniors, peers, or hostels at youth hostels or girls' hostels. Most of the things necessary for maintaining order and communal life in the village as a member of the village were taught during this period. Above all else, the importance of being a full-fledged member capable of living in a community was emphasized, and adult standards were set for various jobs.

Not only in the home but also in village education, the method adopted was to have the child learn by doing things on the spot and correct their shortcomings and defects. The main focus was on letting the child grasp and understand the tricks by themselves, rather than teaching them. In the village community, it was more painful to be laughed at than to be scolded. The goal was to be able to appear in front of others without feeling embarrassed, and to be able to do things the same as others was considered to be a full-fledged adult.

In premodern societies, it was common for people to take over the family business of their birth, and they often spent their whole lives in their own villages, so they inherited the traditional lifestyle and became full-fledged members of society. However, it was also common for people to eat other people's food and receive strict discipline, not just from their families or villages. Apart from agriculture, where small-scale family-based management was common from an early stage, apprenticeships and apprenticeships for craftsmen, merchants, and even entertainers are examples of this. In the case of jobs that required special skills, this was thought to be a good way to acquire life skills. Here too, learning was given priority over teaching, and the method used was to have the person actually participate in the work and correct their shortcomings, with emphasis placed on encouraging the individual's self-awareness and initiative. It was also said that the secret to discipline was to lead a person to a state of mind similar to enlightenment, where they would no longer be scolded.

Separately from this, there was also a custom of girls being sent to work as maids or servants in other households as apprentices in manners, where they were given strict discipline, and in some places this was one of the conditions for marriage. The true meaning of the proverb "Let your child travel" is said to be a statement of the effectiveness of this discipline by others. As society modernized and individualism and meritocracy gained prominence, the significance of discipline, which was the key element of education in previous generations, faded, and simultaneous verbal education of the same content was given, and education became limited from the former goal of perfecting oneself as a holistic adult to simply learning manners and forced training for that purpose.

[Yoshiharu Iijima]

Modern Discipline

In the 1980s, many educational problems such as school violence and bullying arose, and the need for moral education and discipline was strongly advocated. This was the result of the collapse of the previous educational system in local communities, which was based on the idea that "children can grow up even without parents," and the great changes in society and family. In Japan, the rapid economic growth of the 1960s led many people to become urban workers, and in the case of farmers, mechanization led to an increase in the number of people leaving farming as part-time work became more common. As a result, the income level of the people improved and economically affluent lives were realized, and the "modern family," which had been considered ideal until then, became widespread at the mass level. This marked the end of the era of the dissolution of village communities and the succession of family businesses, and also meant an increase in families who were enthusiastic about educating their children. At the end of the 1960s, the term "educational mom" became popular, and the old village customs and family business discipline no longer had much meaning, and families that placed importance on study and academic background became widespread among the wealthy people.

The role of schools has also changed significantly during this time. Until the early 1970s, schools were seen as a reliable source of support for students in entering higher education and finding employment in rural areas, as flag-bearers of modernization. They also played a certain role in helping students learn the language and etiquette they needed to use in urban jobs, which differed from the discipline and customs of their homes and villages. Teachers were trusted by not only parents but also children. However, after the mid-1970s, when the country entered a period of low growth after the oil shock, accusations and criticisms of schools' outdated lifestyle guidance and their repressive tendency to force collective behavior became more prominent. In an affluent society, there were more parents with educational backgrounds and knowledge that surpassed those of teachers, and who had a strong interest in education. Schools and teachers, which had been consistently progressive since the Meiji era, became repressive, and their status in society declined.

Nowadays, we often hear people say that "discipline is declining compared to the past." However, the truth is the opposite. Today, with rural communities and other local communities disintegrating and schools losing the trust and support they once had, the ultimate responsibility for children's education is now solely the family. Since the middle of the Taisho period, "educational families" have emerged as a new middle class in cities, and as modern families became more popular during the period of high economic growth, they have become more and more enthusiastic about educating and disciplining their children amid a rapid decline in the birthrate. One proof of this is the high proportion of education expenses in household budgets. In fact, there has never been a time when family ties were as strong as they are today, or when families were fully involved in their children's education. The transition from primary industries centered on agricultural production to an industrialized society and its economic success made this possible.

However, on the other hand, the fact that families have taken on the sole responsibility of their children's education has given rise to two modern problems for children. One is when families are no longer able to function as a family due to various reasons such as poverty, illness, and disasters. Even though society has become more affluent, many families drop out (drop out of social and collective activities) and break up. Neglecting or indifference to children leads to a lack of discipline and a decline in academic ability, but in this case, it is the result of no one to accept the child. The other is when families are over-functioning. In particular, if the mother-child relationship is too close, the child cannot maintain distance and is unable to become independent. Not only in infancy, but also in childhood, the child's childhood has become longer due to the increase in the rate of progression to higher education, so there are cases where children are unable to separate from their parents even after reaching adulthood. Since the 1990s, child abuse due to anxiety about child-rearing, maternal illness (a child's mental and physical illness caused by the way the mother raises them) and domestic violence, which have become prominent problems, are rather caused by close and suffocating family ties. With the rapid development of information devices, we are now moving from an industrialized society to an information society, and we are living in an age where the individualization of families and a lifestyle that values the individual are emphasized. Internet-related crimes by juveniles have also become prominent. Although a variety of lifestyles are now possible due to our wealth, it can also be said that this is a difficult time for parents who are responsible for discipline and other aspects of home education. Up until now, discipline and education have mostly been intentional, but in the future, it will be necessary to reconsider the unintentional aspects of traditional discipline.

[Yoshiharu Iijima]

Peoples and Disciplines

What is emphasized in discipline depends on the nature of each society and the way people think, and is by no means uniform. In Western societies, where members of society are expected to be self-disciplined and punctual, discipline is said to be characterized by strictness in these areas. On the other hand, in Southeast Asian societies, where interdependence is the foundation of society, discipline emphasizes cooperation with others and obedience to elders, while people are expected to act as guardians for younger people. Cross-cultural research has shown that, generally, obedience and a sense of responsibility are key points in discipline in agricultural societies, while initiative, independence, and autonomy are key points in hunter-gatherer societies.

There are also many different ways of disciplining children. For example, the nuclear family is the place where children are disciplined, and the mother is the main disciplinarian. In the Polynesian islands in the mid-20th century, it was observed that uncles, aunts, and grandparents were also caring disciplinarians, just like parents. It was a natural part of daily life for children to move into the homes of people other than their parents. It was not uncommon to see older sisters looking after their younger brothers, as was once seen in Japan. In societies where the household is the main productive unit, children often take part in productive activities with responsibility from an early age according to their abilities, and this can be an important opportunity for discipline. Not only etiquette but also the knowledge and skills necessary for independence are taught through practice. Specific methods of discipline are diverse, reflecting the culture of each society. For example, in societies where respect for elders is expressed in the behavior of "not sitting with one's back turned," social values are instilled through discipline in posture and behavior. When it comes to scolding, some methods involve borrowing the power of frightening entities other than the child, such as "kidnappers" or "evil spirits," while American parenting books recommend that parents get down on their knees to be at the child's eye level and explain in words what they have done wrong in order to convince the child.

After birth, every child must eventually be weaned and grow up while expanding its network of human relationships. Every child is trained to be able to perform basic daily activities such as defecation and eating on his or her own. The diversity seen in this basic training process common to all human beings shows us the wide range of human potential.

[Hiroko Yokoyama]

"Discipline" by Wagatsuma Hiroshi and Hara Hiroko (1974, Kobundo)" ▽ "Japanese Discipline - Its Tradition and Change" by Noguchi Takenori and Shiramizu Shigehiko (1973, Teikoku Gakkai)" ▽ "Children's Folklore - Where Do Children Come From" by Iijima Yoshiharu (1991, Shinyosha)" ▽ "Thinking about Home Education Now - Lifelong Learning for Parents and Children" by Endo Katsuya (1992, Kawashima Shoten)" ▽ "Has Japanese Discipline Declined? - The Future of the 'Educating Family'" by Hirota Teruyuki (Kodansha Gendai Shinsho)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

日常生活での行儀作法や生活慣習の型を身につけさせることをいい、おもに家庭内での初期教育をさす。しかし、以前はこのことばはもっと広い意味内容をもち、単に行儀作法を修得させるという狭い意味でなく、「性質をたわめ直しつつ一人前に育てる」ことを意味し、またその適用範囲も幼少期の訓育だけとは限らなかった。たとえば、長野県の一部では、結婚することをヒトニナル（一人前になる）といったが親の立場からはこれをシツケルと称したという。このほか、「シツケ約束」といって、将来独立させてもらうことを条件に子供のときから無償で働くことや、嫁入り先を「シツケ所」とよんだり、田植や播種(はしゅ)を作物のシツケといったり、さらに着物の型くずれを防ぐための「シツケ糸」など、みな人並みの人物や物として一定の型を身につけることを意味していた。柳田国男(やなぎたくにお)は「あたりまへのことは少しも教へずに、あたりまへで無いことを言ひ又は行つたときに、誡(いまし)め又はさとすのが、シツケの法則」だと述べている。つまり、しつけとは、教えるというよりも、むしろまず実地に行わせてその欠点を矯正するというやり方で、一人前にすることを意味したのである。なお、躾の字は国字であり、武士にふさわしい上品な立ちふるまいを授け、身構えを美しく保つという意味からつくられた字とされている。

［飯島吉晴］

しつけの目的と習得の時期

しつけの目的は一人前の社会人を育て上げることであるが、かつては、しつけの担当者や場所は、幼年期、少年期、青年期によって異なっていた。幼年期はひとり立ちするための基礎をつくる時期であり、食事、排泄(はいせつ)行為、睡眠、清潔と整理、ことば、遊びと手伝い、安全教育などがおもに祖父母（老人）によって家庭内でしつけられた。この時期は父母は農作業などで忙しいため、老人や兄姉に世話をされながら、生活伝承の伝統を無意識のうちに体得していき、言い習わしや昔話など言語伝承を聞いて、ことばや生活慣習もしだいに身につけていったのである。

　7歳ころから少年期に入り、家族の一員としての自覚も出てき、実際に両親に従って生産技術の習得をしたり、子供組や遊び仲間での活動や遊びを通して共同体への参加の準備をしたりする。この時期は、家から田畑等の仕事の現場に行って両親の仕事を見習ったり、初めに自分で行ってみて欠点を矯正してもらいながら技術を修得していく。また幼年時とは異なり、挨拶(あいさつ)や約束、行儀作法など社会的なルールを厳しくしつけられるとともに、「七つ鼻どり」などというように軽い作業からしだいに体力の要る下肥担ぎなどの生産技術を身につけていく。

　青年期は15歳前後の若者組の加入から結婚するまでの時期で、社会人として一人前の完成を目ざすとともに、共同体のルールのほか結婚相手の見分け方や性体験を学んでいく。この時期のしつけは、若者宿や娘宿などで先輩や仲間、あるいは宿親によってなされるのが普通であった。村人の一員として村の共同生活や秩序を維持するうえで必要な事柄は、ほぼこの時期にしつけられた。そこではなによりも共同生活を営むための一人前ということが重視され、さまざまな仕事について一人前の基準が設けられていた。

　家庭ばかりでなく村の教育においても、まず実際に見習わせて現場で行わせながら、その悪いところや欠点を矯めていく方法がとられ、教えることよりも自分でこつをつかませ、悟らせることを主眼としていた。村という共同体にあっては、とくに叱(しか)られることよりも、むしろ笑われることのほうが身にこたえたのである。人前に出ても恥ずかしくない、また人に笑われないということが目標であり、人並みにできれば一人前として十全とされた。

　近代以前の社会では、生まれた家の家業を継ぐのが普通であり、自分の村で一生を過ごすことが多かったから、伝統的な生活様式の型をこうして受け継いで一人前の社会人となっていったのである。しかし、単に家庭や村だけでなく、他人の飯を食って厳しくしつけてもらうということも一方で行われていた。早くから家族労働を主とする小規模経営が一般化していた農業は別として、諸職人や商人、さらに芸能人などの徒弟奉公や門弟修業はその一例である。特別の技能を要する仕事の場合、このほうが生活技術を体得するうえでよいと考えられたのである。ここでも教えるよりも見習うことが第一とされ、実際に仕事に参与させつつ欠点を矯正する方法がとられ、本人の自覚や自発性を促すことを重視した。叱られなくなり、一種の悟りに似た境地まで導いていくのがしつけの極意ともされたのである。

　これとは別に、行儀見習いと称して、他家に女中奉公や御邸(おやしき)奉公をして厳しくしつけてもらう風習もあり、これが結婚の条件の一つとなっていた所もある。「かわいい子には旅をさせよ」という諺(ことわざ)の真意も、この他人のしつけの効果を説いたものとされている。社会の近代化が進み、個人主義や業績主義が台頭してくると、前代教育の要(かなめ)であったしつけの意義は薄れ、ことばによる同一内容の同時教育が施されるようになって、かつての全人的な一人前の人間の完成から、単なる行儀作法の修得やそのための強制的な訓育という限定されたものになった。

［飯島吉晴］

現代のしつけ

1980年代に入り、校内暴力やいじめなど多くの教育問題が起き、道徳教育やしつけの必要性が強く唱えられた。これは、「親はなくとも子は育つ」といった以前の地域社会の教育体制が崩壊し、社会や家族のあり方が大きく変化した結果である。日本では、1960年代の高度経済成長によって国民の多くが都市勤労者となり、農家の場合も機械化などにより兼業化が進み離農する者も増加してきた。その結果、国民の所得水準も向上して経済的に豊かな生活がいちおう実現し、それまで理想とされていた「近代的な家族」が大衆レベルで普及した。このことは、村落共同体の解体と家業継承の時代の終わりを告げると同時に、子供の教育に熱心な家族の増加を意味した。1960年代末には「教育ママ」ということばも流行し、旧来の村のしきたりや家業のしつけは大きな意味をもたなくなり、豊かになった国民の間に勉強や学歴を重視する家庭が広範にみられるようになった。

　学校の役割も、この間に大きく変化した。学校は、農村部では近代化への旗手として1970年代初頭まで進学や就職の面で頼りになる存在とされ、家や村でのしつけや慣習とは異なる、都会の就職先でのことば遣いや礼儀作法の習得でも一定の役割を果たし、教師は親ばかりでなく子供たちからも信頼されていた。ところが、オイル・ショックを経て低成長期に入った1970年代なかば以降、学校の旧態依然たる生活指導や集団的行動を強いる抑圧的な傾向に対して告発や批判が目だつようになった。豊かになった社会のなかで、教師をしのぐ学歴や知識をもち、かつ教育に強い関心をもつ親が多くなり、明治以来一貫して進歩的であった学校や教師はむしろ抑圧的な存在となり、世間的にも地位が低下したのである。

　現在、「しつけは昔に比べて衰退している」という言説をよく耳にする。しかし、事実は逆であり、村落共同体などの地域社会が解体し、学校がかつての信頼と支持を喪失してしまった今日、家族だけが一身に子供の教育の最終責任を負う状況になっているのである。大正なかば以降、都市の新中間層として社会的に出現するようになった「教育する家族」は、近代的な家族として高度成長期に大衆化し、少子化が急速に進むなかでますます子供の教育やしつけに熱心に取り組んでいる。家計のなかの教育費の占める高い割合もその証左の一つである。実は現代ほど家族の絆(きずな)が強く、また子供の教育に全面的に家族がかかわる時代はなかったのである。農業生産中心の第一次産業から工業化社会へと移行し、経済的に成功したことがそれを可能にしたのである。

　しかし、一方で、家族が子供の教育を一身に引き受けるようになったことが、二つの現代の子供の問題を生んでいる。一つは、貧困や病気、災害など諸種の理由のために家族が家族としての機能を果たせなくなっている場合である。豊かになったとはいえ、なかにはドロップアウト（社会的・集団的活動から脱落すること）し、離散する家族も少なくない。子供の放任や無関心はしつけの欠如や学力の低下をもたらすが、この場合は、子供を受け止める存在がなくなってしまった結果である。いま一つは反対に、家族が過剰に機能している場合である。とくに、母子関係が密着しすぎると距離が保てずに自立できなくなってしまうのである。幼少期ばかりではなく、子供期が進学率の向上で長くなったため、成人年齢に達しても親離れできていない場合もある。1990年代以降、目だった問題になっている育児不安からの児童虐待、過保護や過干渉に由来する母原病（母親の育て方が原因の子供の心身の病気）や家庭内暴力などは、むしろ濃密で息苦しい家族結合が背景になっている。いまや情報機器の飛躍的な発展で工業化社会から情報化社会への移行が進みつつあり、家族の個性化や個人重視の生き方が強調される時代になっている。また、ネット関連での青少年犯罪も目だつようになった。豊かさゆえに現在は多様な生き方が可能になっているが、しつけなど家庭教育に責任をもつ親にとってはむずかしい時代ともいえよう。なお、これまでしつけや教育は意図的なものがほとんどであったが、今後は伝統的なしつけにみられた無意図的なものも見直していく必要があろう。

［飯島吉晴］

諸民族としつけ

しつけにおいて何を重視するかは、それぞれの社会のあり方や人々の考え方にかかわっており、けっして一様ではない。社会人に対して自律や時間厳守などが要求される西欧社会では、しつけにおいてもこの面での厳格さが特徴であるといわれる。他方、相互依存関係が社会の基調となっている東南アジア社会のしつけでは、他人との協調や、年長者への従順が強調される一方で、年少者に対しては保護者として行動することが要求されるという。通文化的研究によると、一般的に農耕社会では従順さと責任感が、採集狩猟社会では独創力や独立性、自律性がしつけの要点になっているという。

　しつけを誰がどのようにするかも多様である。たとえば核家族がしつけの場となり、なかでも母親が主たるしつけ手を担当するのはその一つの例にすぎない。20世紀のなかばごろ、ポリネシアの島々では、おじやおば、祖父母らも両親と同様の親身なしつけ手であると観察されている。子供がそれら父母以外の者の家に移り住むことが、ごく自然な行動として日常のなかで行われたという。かつて日本でもみられた弟や妹を世話する小さな姉や兄の姿も少なくなかった。また世帯がその社会の主要な生産活動単位である社会では、しばしば子供もその能力に応じて早くから責任を伴う生産活動に携わり、それが重要なしつけの機会となっていることもある。そこでは礼儀作法のみならず、ひとり立ちに必要な知識や技術も実践のなかでしつけられる。具体的なしつけ方となると、さらに各社会の文化を反映して多彩である。たとえば年長者に対する尊敬が「背を向けて座らない」という行動のなかに表現される社会では、立ち居ふるまいのしつけを通して社会の価値観が植え付けられていく。しかり方にしても「人さらい」や「悪霊」など当事者以外の恐ろしい存在の力を借りる方法もあれば、アメリカの育児書では、親が膝(ひざ)を折って子供と同じ目の高さになり、何が悪いのかをことばで説明して納得させることが勧められてきた。

　誕生以後、子供はやがてみな離乳し、その人間関係の網の目を拡大しつつ成長していかねばならない。排便、食事などの基本的日常活動はどの子もひとりでできるようにしつけられていく。このような人類共通の基本的しつけ過程においてみられる多様性は、われわれに人間の可能性の範囲の広さを示している。

［横山廣子］

『我妻洋・原ひろ子著『しつけ』（1974・弘文堂）』▽『野口武徳・白水繁彦著『日本人のしつけ――その伝統と変容』（1973・帝国行政学会）』▽『飯島吉晴著『子供の民俗学――子供はどこから来たのか』（1991・新曜社）』▽『遠藤克弥著『いま家庭教育を考える――親と子の生涯学習』（1992・川島書店）』▽『広田照幸著『日本人のしつけは衰退したか――「教育する家族」のゆくえ』（講談社現代新書）』