Paleotext - Komonjogaku

Japanese: 古文書学 - こもんじょがく

Japan

A large number of ancient documents from before the Nara period have been handed down in Japan, and this is a field of study that aims to classify them morphologically, analyze the ways in which they functioned, and synthesize and systematize them. It can be divided into three trends according to its specific purpose.

The first is the most practical purpose of studying precedents and templates in order to create and use documents oneself. In the Nara period, the types, names, and formats of documents were officially regulated for the first time by official decrees, and many books of court etiquette and writing etiquette were created from the Middle Ages onwards, but these were intended to acquire the document knowledge needed on a daily basis. Even today, documents issued by or submitted to public institutions have a set format, and even letters exchanged privately have customary rules according to the age and social status difference between the sender and recipient, as well as purposes such as celebrations and condolences. Extreme deviations from these rules can lead to criticism, but in premodern times people had to prepare for even stricter social sanctions. In the late Kamakura period, the Koan Rei-setsu (Ceremony of Letters and Letters) was established as part of the policy of virtuous government of the nobility. It specified in detail the format of letters exchanged by aristocrats and monks according to their current official ranks, and had a great influence on subsequent letter and letter ceremonies. Even today, some people, such as Nakamura Naokatsu, claim that paleography is the study of authenticity appraisal (Nihon Kobunshogaku (Paleologism of Japanese Ancient Documents), Volumes 1, 2, and 3), and in court cases, whether criminal or civil, the appraisal of evidential documents is often the deciding factor in determining the outcome of a trial. In pre-modern times, ownership of land or office was often proven only by documents, and the Kamakura Shogunate's Law of Evidence placed the highest priority on written evidence, so document appraisal techniques developed rapidly. As long as documents are produced every day and become ancient documents as soon as they have completed their current function, it is unlikely that the study of ancient documents as a practical science will disappear.

The second is the study of ancient documents as a supplementary means of historical research. As symbolized by the fact that paleography courses are now being offered at universities as part of the history department, the recognition of paleography as a technical tool in historical research is the most common-sense idea. Indeed, since ancient documents, along with old records, make up one of the two major parts of historical materials, it is extremely difficult to conduct empirical historical research without making effective use of ancient documents. Needless to say, the first step to this is to collect ancient documents scattered throughout the country and, as far as possible, print and publish them. Before the war, historical materials were collected exclusively by the Historiographical Institute of the University of Tokyo and some national universities, but after the war, many local governments simultaneously compiled prefectural and municipal histories, and Takeuchi Rizo published three volumes of "Nara Ibun" (Nara Documents), 15 volumes of "Heian Ibun" (Heian Documents), and the ongoing publication of 42 volumes of the main series and four supplementary volumes of "Kamakura Ibun" (Kamakura Documents). These publications not only increased the quantity of available documents, but also contributed greatly to improving the quality of paleography, which is necessary for compilation. By classifying the accumulated documents by form and style, and further categorizing the paper, calligraphy style, writing, seals, etc., and tracing changes over time, it is possible to know where each document is positioned in the system of paleography and to increase the value of documents as historical materials.

The method of classifying documents into official and private documents and then into more detailed categories according to the position of signature and date of signature seems to have reached its apex in Aida Jiro's "Nihon no Komonsho" (Ancient Documents of Japan), which was completed shortly after the war, but on top of that, great historical research results have been achieved. For example, Sato Shinichi's theory of the dual nature of shogunate power, which is currently having a great influence on medieval political history research, classifies the official orders given to samurai by the early Muromachi shogunate into two types: kudashi-bumi and gechi-jo, and establishes that the former were used by Shogun Ashikaga Takauji to grant rewards and appoint shugosho (provincial governors), and the latter were used by his younger brother Tadayoshi to approve succession and to make court decisions. From there, he proceeded to prove Takauji's master-vassal rule and Tadayoshi's sovereign rule.

Of course, the relationship between history and paleography cannot be based on the one-sided service of the latter. It is natural that new historical findings and hypotheses will lead to new advances in paleography research. For example, a large portion of the privilege-granting documents addressed to merchants and industrialists known as kugonin (officers), such as kurododokorocho (certificates of treasurers) and shimobunrui (certificates of shogun), which had previously been treated as typical forgeries, were restored to their authenticity by Amino Yoshihiko. This was not simply the result of paleography methods such as collection, classification, and comparison, but it is certain that the starting point was the consideration of the connection between the emperor and the kugonin through the emperor's right of navigation on land and sea and his right to control the mountains and fields. Currently, a method of capturing documents as dynamically as possible and tracing each process from the stage of their creation to their actual functioning, possession, and transmission is finally becoming established, but the more this happens, the deeper the mutual dependency between history and paleography will inevitably become.

The third direction is the position that separates paleography from its practical and historical research uses, and seeks to establish it as an independent academic field. According to its proponent, Sato Shinichi, this independent field seeks to clarify the document systems of each era and their historical development based on function, and to investigate the history of documents as one of the means of human communication. Very recently, a trend has emerged to consider the meaning of spoken communication formats. While the actual research perspectives and methods, including these, are not so different from the second position, we can fully expect that the awareness of seeking an independent academic field will be the driving force behind the constant evolution and progress of paleography.

[Hiroshi Kasamatsu]

Europe

Definition

Palaeography is a critical study of ancient documents, both public and private, related to legislation, administration, justice, and diplomacy. In Europe, paleography has been established as a branch of history, with its own research subjects and methods. The fundamental sources for historical research are broadly divided into descriptive sources and documentary sources. The former are narrative chronicles, biographies, records, etc., which are usually stored in libraries, while the latter are deeds, contracts, reports, minutes, ledgers, court records, statutes, etc., written for legal or practical purposes, which are stored in archives (archives in English, archives in French, Archiv in German). Bibliography (bibliography in English, bibliographie in French, Bibliographie in German) is established for descriptive sources, i.e. records, while paleography, a science of scientific criticism, is established for documentary sources, i.e. ancient documents. Before the widespread use of movable type printing, both ancient records and ancient documents were all copied by hand, and so paleography (in English, paléographie in French, and Paläographie in German) was established as a field that studied the style of writing. However, while ancient records were written in a unique style of writing, called book-hand (in English, écriture livrique in French, and Buchschrift in German), ancient documents were written in cursive (in English, court-hand, écriture diplomatique in French, and Geschäftsschrift in German), so paleography and paleography, especially the study of cursive writing, are closely related.

[Kaoru Ukawa]

Background of the Establishment of Palaeography

Medieval society in Western Europe north of the Alps was originally characterized by the rule of Germanic law, which stands in stark contrast to the medieval society established in the Mediterranean region, which had inherited Roman law since classical antiquity. In other words, Germanic law was based on the principle of orality, while Roman law was based on written law. In the 12th century in Italy and southern France, when a contract was concluded, any changes in legal rights and relationships were recorded in writing, and a notary public with the approval of the emperor or pope prepared a notarized document according to a set format, which was then certified by the notary public's signature and seal. A copy of the original was kept by the notary public.

In contrast, in areas governed by Germanic law, such as England, Germany, and northern France, changes in rights, such as contracts and real estate transfers, were not written down but were made verbally, and were made legally valid through symbolic rituals performed in the presence of witnesses. For example, the transferor of land would go to the site with the transferee, walk around the property together, and the transferor would cut out a block of earth with a knife in the presence of witnesses and hand it directly to the transferee (this ceremony was called the handover of possession). The transfer was then established, reported to the court assembly, and recognized as legally valid. Such transfers were rarely written down, and in exceptional cases, they were sometimes written in the margins of the gospels of a church. When a king or noble donated his land to a church or monastery, the ownership of the land was transferred from the natural lord to the patron saint of the church or monastery, that is, a personified religious corporation, through the ritual of the donor dedicating a block of earth from the donated land to the altar. The fact that old donation documents have been preserved with the knives used to cut the clods of clay attached to them clearly indicates that the ceremonial knife carries more legal weight than the document itself.

However, as time passed, the fact of the donation was forgotten from people's memories, and disputes arose. Also, due to the influence of the Church, which was keen to adopt the principles of Roman law, documents gradually began to be created. Basically, these documents became legally effective when the transferor's seal was stamped on the sealing wax and a witness certified them. However, unlike notarized documents created by notaries, the form and format of the documents varied widely depending on the region, era, and scribe, so the creation of forgeries became rampant, and even at that time, distinguishing between genuine and forged documents was a major issue in courts. In modern times, paleography was established as an academic field that critically examines ancient documents in order to determine their authenticity.

In paleography, the form of a document is the most important subject of study, and scientific criticism is carried out on its external and internal characteristics. External characteristics are related to the material of the document, papyrus or parchment, ink, writing implements, seals, and font, while internal characteristics are related to the format and writing style. Today, a Belgian paleographer is attempting a new method of determining the authenticity of a document by examining the writing style using computers.

[Kaoru Ukawa]

Types and contents of historical documents

Medieval European documents can be broadly divided into public documents and private documents. The former are legislative, administrative, judicial, and diplomatic documents issued by public authorities such as the Pope, bishops, emperors, and kings, while the latter are documents issued by individuals or private individuals such as city authorities and corporations such as monasteries. Each public institution has a chancery (in English, chancelerie in French, and Kanzlei in German), where scribes draft and issue documents. Therefore, it is important to study the organization of the chancery and the content of its work. In addition to the originals, copies or transcripts of documents issued by these chanceries are also handed down. The chancery keeps copies of documents it receives and issues, and it is customary to have a register in which the full text or main text of these documents is registered.

Papal documents were the model for issuing official documents. Papal documents were first written on papyrus, and the oldest surviving papyrus document was issued in 788. After 1005, they began to be written on parchment. Almost no originals of early papal documents remain, and only copies have been passed down in some form. Early documents were in the form of epistola and had a lead seal, so papal documents were called bullas. After the 11th century, the format gradually became fixed, and depending on the content of the document, they were divided into bullae majores and bullae minores. The former are documents of legal acts that require permanent effect, and are undersigned in the handwriting of the Pope and cardinals at the bottom center of the document, and are undersigned as witnesses by a priest at the bottom left and a deacon at the bottom right. The latter are general administrative orders of the Pope. During the Golden Age of Pope Innocent III in the 12th century, the format of papal documents was perfected and strictly followed in every detail, and the creation of the existing register was also started. The issuance of great bulls gradually decreased, and small bulls were differentiated into "tituli" (letters) with a lead seal attached to red and yellow silk cord, and "mandamenta" (bulls) with a seal attached to hemp cord. From the 15th century onwards, "brevia" (instructions) were treated as official documents and replaced bulls. Instructions came to be written in italics and issued under a sealed seal.

Of the 90 documents issued by the King's Secretariat during the Merovingian dynasty (5th century to mid-8th century), 38 are originals. Thirteen of these were written on papyrus, and were converted to parchment prior to the papal documents. The documents were signed by the King and the referendarius, and their seals were stamped on the wax seal at the bottom left of the document. These documents include praeptum (commands) and judicia (decrees). After Charlemagne, documents were authenticated by the signature and seal of the Chancellarius, and the time of issue, Datum, and place, Actum, were recorded.

Official documents in the Anglo-Saxon period were strongly influenced by Frankish documents. The text was written in Latin, but the outline of the donation was written in the native Anglo-Saxon language, which is notable for the strong influence of Germanic law. After the sign of the cross, the king and witnesses were signed by a scribe, but there was no seal. After the Norman Conquest, a simplified form of royal document unique to England was established, despite being influenced by the continent. These were charters, letters patent, and close letters. As for private documents, a form of document called a chirograph was established to fill the gaps in the notary system, and it became the forerunner of the modern indenture.

[Kaoru Ukawa]

"Washida Tetsuo, "The Development of Palaeography in France" (published in the inaugural issue of "Kobunsho Kenkyu", 1968, Yoshikawa Kobunkan) " "Ukawa Kaoru, "Paleography and Palaeography in Britain" (published in the 12th issue of "Kobunsho Kenkyu", 1978, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

日本

わが国には奈良時代以前からの各種多量の古文書が伝来しており、これを形態的に分類し、機能した道筋を分析し、それらを総合して体系化することを目的とする学問。具体的な目的に従って三つの潮流に分けることができる。

　第一は、自ら文書を作成し使用するために、先例や雛型(ひながた)を研究するという、もっとも実用的な目的をもつ。奈良時代、公式令(くしきりょう)によって初めて文書の種類、名称、書式などが公的に規定され、さらに中世以降多くの有職故実(ゆうそくこじつ)書、書札礼(しょさつれい)がつくられたが、これらは日々必要とされる文書知識を得るためのものであった。今日においても、公的機関から出され、あるいはそこに提出される文書には一定の書式があり、また私的に取り交わされる手紙などでも、発信人と受取人との間の年齢や社会的地位の隔たり、さらに慶弔などの用途に従って、慣習的な決まりがある。それから極端に逸脱すれば非難を被る可能性もあるが、前近代ではさらに厳しい社会的制裁を覚悟しなければならなかった。鎌倉時代後期に、公家徳政(くげとくせい)の一環として公定された弘安礼節(こうあんれいせつ)中の書札礼は、貴族・僧侶(そうりょ)の現任の官位に従って、取り交わされる書状の様式を細密に規定しており、以後の書札礼に大きな影響を与えた。また今日でも中村直勝(なおかつ)のように、古文書学とは真偽鑑定の学であるとする主張もあり（『日本古文書学』上中下）、裁判では刑事・民事を問わず、証拠書類の鑑定が裁判の黒白を決める決め手となることが多い。前近代では土地や所職(しょしき)の領有が文書によってのみ証明される場合が多く、とくに鎌倉幕府の証拠法が証文を第一としたため、文書鑑定の技術が急速に発達した。文書が日々生産され、当面の機能を終えると同時に古文書となる限り、こうした実用の学としての古文書研究がなくなることはありえないだろう。

　第二は、歴史研究の補助手段としての古文書研究である。現今各大学の古文書学講座が史学科に付属しているのに象徴されるように、歴史研究の技術的な手段としての古文書学という認識は、もっとも常識的な観念である。確かに古文書が古記録と並んで歴史資料の二大部分の一つを占める以上、古文書を有効に利用せずして、実証的な歴史研究を行うことはきわめてむずかしい。そのためにはまず、全国各地に散在している古文書を採訪し、可能な限り印刷・上梓(じょうし)されることが望ましいのはいうまでもない。戦前の史料収集は東京大学史料編纂所(へんさんじょ)や一部の官立大学によって独占的に行われていたが、戦後多くの自治体において県市町村史の編纂が一斉に行われ、また竹内理三(りぞう)が独力で成し遂げた『奈良遺文』3冊、『平安遺文』15冊、さらに継続中の『鎌倉遺文』正編42冊、補遺編4冊などの刊行によって、単に利用しうる古文書が量的に増大したのみではなく、編纂上必要とされる古文書学の質的向上に大きな寄与を果たした。集積された文書を形態、様式によって分類し、さらに用紙、書風、文章、印章などを類型化し、時代的な変化を追跡することによって、個々の文書が古文書の体系のなかでどこに位置づけられるかを知ることができるし、歴史史料としての文書の価値を高めることが可能となる。

　文書を公文書、私文書に大別し、署判・日次(ひなみ)の位置によって細分化していく様式分類の方法は、戦後まもなく完結した相田(あいだ)二郎『日本の古文書』上下2冊によって極点にまで達した観があるが、そのうえにたって歴史学上の大きな研究成果が達成された。たとえば、現在中世政治史研究に大きな影響を与えている佐藤進一の幕府権力の二元性論は、初期の室町幕府が武士に与えた公的な命令文書を、下文(くだしぶみ)と下知(げち)状の2種に分類し、前者は将軍足利尊氏(あしかがたかうじ)が恩賞や守護職(しゅごしき)の任命に用いたものであり、後者は弟直義(ただよし)が相続の承認や裁判の判決文書に用いたものであるという事実を確定した。そしてそこから、尊氏のもつ主従制的支配権、直義のもつ統治権的支配権を論証したことから出発したものであった。

　もちろん歴史学と古文書学の関係が、後者の一方的奉仕によって成り立っているはずはない。新しい歴史学上の成果や仮説を導入することによって、古文書研究にも新たな進歩が生まれるのは当然である。たとえば、従来代表的な偽文書(ぎもんじょ)として取り扱われてきた、供御人(くごにん)とよばれる商工業者あての特権賦与文書、蔵人所牒(くろうどどころちょう)や下文類のうち、かなりの部分が網野善彦(あみのよしひこ)によって正当な文書として復権されたが、それは単に、収集、分類、比較といった古文書学的方法によって得られた成果ではなく、天皇がもつ海陸の交通権や山野の支配権を通じて、天皇・供御人両者の結び付きを考えたところに出発点を置いていることは確かである。現在では文書をできる限り動的にとらえ、作成される段階から、実際に機能し、保有され、伝来する各プロセスをそれぞれ追跡するという方法がようやく定着しつつあるが、そうなればなるほど、歴史学・古文書学相互の依存関係は深まらざるをえないだろう。

　第三の方向は、古文書学を実用や歴史研究の手段から切り放し、独自の学問領域として確立していこうとする立場である。その主張者である佐藤進一によれば、その独自領域とは、機能を軸にして各時代の文書体系と、その史的展開を明らかにして、人間の意志伝達手段の一つである文書の歴史それ自身を究明しようとするものである。ごく最近に至って、音声による伝達形式のもつ意味を考えようとする傾向が現れ始めた。それらを含めて、実際の研究視点や方法において第二の立場とそれほど異なるものではないにしても、独自の学問領域の模索という自覚が、古文書学をつねに脱皮させ進歩させていくための原動力となることは十分期待できよう。

［笠松宏至］

ヨーロッパ

定義

古文書学とは、立法、行政、司法、外交にかかわる公文書、私文書である古文書に関する批判的学問である。ヨーロッパにおける古文書学は、歴史補助学の一分野として確立し、独自の研究対象と方法とを有する。歴史研究のための根本史料は記述史料と文書史料とに大別される。前者は、叙述的に記された編年代記、伝記、記録等であり、通例図書館に収蔵されるのに対し、後者は、法律または実用的目的で書かれた証書、契約書、報告書、議事録、帳簿、訴訟記録、法令集等であり、文書館（英語でarchives、フランス語でarchives、ドイツ語でArchiv）に収蔵される。記述史料、すなわち記録に関して書誌学（英語でbibliography、フランス語でbibliographie、ドイツ語でBibliographie）が成立するのに対して、文書史料、すなわち古文書に関して、科学的批判の学である古文書学が成立する。古記録、古文書ともに、活版印刷術の普及以前はすべて筆写されたので、その書体について古書体学（英語でpaleography、フランス語でpaléographie、ドイツ語でPaläographie）が成立する。しかし古記録は、独自の書体、楷書(かいしょ)体（英語でbook-hand、フランス語でécriture livrique、ドイツ語でBuchschrift）で筆字されたが、古文書は、草書体（英語でcourt-hand、フランス語でécriture diplomatique、ドイツ語でGeschäftsschrift）でしたためられたので、古文書学と古書体学、とりわけ草書体の研究とは密接な関係にある。

［鵜川　馨］

古文書学成立の背景

アルプス以北の西ヨーロッパの中世社会は、本来ゲルマン法の支配を特徴とする社会であり、古典古代以来、ローマ法を継受した地中海地域に成立した中世社会と顕著な対照を示す。すなわちゲルマン法は口頭主義を、ローマ法は文書主義を原理とする。12世紀に、イタリア、南フランスで契約の締結に際し、いっさいの法律上の権利諸関係の変更は文書に記録され、それも皇帝や教皇の允可(いんか)を得た公証人が一定の書式にのっとって公正証書を作成し、公証人の署名と花押(かおう)とにより認証された。その原本の控えは公証人の手元に保管された。

　これに対し、イングランド、ドイツ、北フランスなどゲルマン法の支配する地域では、契約、不動産譲渡などの権利関係の変更は文書によらず、口頭で行われ、証人の面前でなされる象徴的儀礼によって法的に有効とされた。一例をあげれば、土地の譲渡者は、譲受者とともに現地に赴き、当該物件の四囲をともに巡り歩き、譲渡者は証人の面前で小刀で土塊を切り取り、直接譲受者に手渡すという儀礼（これを占有の引渡しという）によって、譲渡行為が成立し、裁判集会に報告され、法的に有効と認められた。このような譲渡行為が文書にしたためられることはまれで、例外的に、教会の福音書(ふくいんしょ)の余白に記入されることがあった。国王や貴族がその領地を教会や修道院に寄進する場合、寄進者が寄進地の土塊を祭壇に捧(ささ)げるという儀礼によって、その領有権が、自然人たる領主から、教会・修道院の守護聖人、すなわち擬人化された宗教法人に移転したことになる。古い寄進状に、土塊を切り取った小刀が添えて保存されている事実は、文書それ自体よりも、儀礼に用いられた小刀のほうが法的証明力の強いことを如実に物語っている。

　しかし時の経過とともに、人々の記憶から寄進の事実が忘れ去られ、係争が生じるので、またローマ法の原理の採用に熱心であった教会の働きかけもあって、しだいに文書が作成されるようになったのである。基本的にこれらの証書も譲渡者の印璽(いんじ)の封蝋(ふうろう)への押捺(おうなつ)と証人の認証によって法的効力が発生することとなった。しかし公証人の作成した公正証書と異なって、証書の形態も書式も精粗さまざまで、地域により、時代により、書記により千差万別であったため、偽文書の作成が横行し、当時も、真正な文書と偽文書の識別が法廷で大問題であり、近代に入ると、古文書の真偽をめぐって、古文書の批判的検討の学問としての古文書学の成立をみるのである。

　古文書学では、文書の形式がもっとも重要な検討課題で、外的特徴と内的特徴について科学的批判が加えられる。外的特徴とは、文書の材質、パピルスと羊皮紙、インク、筆記具、印璽、書体にかかわり、内的特徴とは、書式、文体にかかわるものである。今日では、ベルギーの古文書学者によって、コンピュータを駆使する文体の検討から、文書の真偽を問う方法が新たに試みられている。

［鵜川　馨］

古文書の種類と内容

ヨーロッパ中世の古文書は公文書と私文書とに大別される。前者は、立法、行政、司法、外交関係の文書で、教皇、司教、皇帝、国王等の公的権力の発給する文書であり、後者は、個人、あるいは都市当局、修道院といった法人等の私人が発給する文書をいう。それぞれの公的機関には、尚書局（英語でchancery、フランス語でchancellerie、ドイツ語でKanzlei）があって、書記が文書を起草し、発給する。したがって尚書局の機構やその業務内容の研究が重要である。またこれらの尚書局の発給した文書は、原本(オリジナル)のほかに、写し(コピー)あるいは謄本が伝えられている。尚書局には受領した文書も発給した文書の控えも保管され、それらの全文または主文を登記した登録簿も備えられるのが習わしである。

　公文書の発給の点で範例となったのは教皇文書である。教皇文書は初めパピルスにしたためられ、現存する最古のパピルス文書は788年に発給されたものである。1005年以降、羊皮紙にしたためられるようになった。初期の教皇文書の原本はほとんど現存せず、なんらかの形で写しとして伝えられるにすぎない。初期の文書は、書簡epistolaの形式をとり、鉛の印璽が付されていたので、教皇文書は勅書（ブルラ）bullaとよばれた。11世紀以降、しだいに書式が固定し、文書の内容によって、大勅書bullae majoresと小勅書bullae minoresに分けられ、前者は永続的効果を要する法行為の文書で、文書の下部中央に教皇と枢機卿(すうききょう)の自筆の下署があり、その左下に司祭、右下に助祭が証人として下署している。後者は、教皇の行政命令一般である。12世紀、インノケンティウス3世の黄金時代に教皇文書の書式も完成し、細部にわたって厳格に守られ、現存する登録簿の作成も開始された。しだいに大勅書の発給が少なくなり、小勅書も、赤と黄の絹紐(きぬひも)に鉛の印璽を付した「書簡」tituliと、麻紐に印璽を付した「教書」mandamentaに分化した。15世紀以降は、「訓令」breviaが正式の文書として取り扱われ、教書にかわった。訓令はイタリック体でしたためられ、緘封(かんぷう)されたうえで発給されるようになった。

　現存するメロビング朝（5世紀～8世紀なかば）の国王尚書局の発給した証書90通のうち38通が原本である。うち13通がパピルスで、教皇文書に先だって羊皮紙にかえられた。国王と伝旨官referendariusの下署と文書の左下に、印璽を封蝋の上に押捺してある。命令文書praeptumと判決文書judiciaとがある。シャルルマーニュ以降は、尚書chancellariusの下署と印璽の押捺によって認証され、発行の時Datumと場所Actumが記載されるようになった。

　アングロ・サクソン期の公文書は、フランクの文書の影響を強く受けていた。本文はラテン語でしたためられたが、寄進地の四囲は土着語のアングロ・サクソン語で記されていて、ゲルマン法の強い影響が認められる点が注目される。十字の印のあとに書記の手になる国王と証人の下署があり、印璽の押捺はない。ノルマン征服後、大陸の影響を受けながらも、イギリス独自の簡略な国王文書の形式が成立した。勅許状charters、開封勅許状letters patent、緘封勅許状close lettersがそれである。私文書については、公証人制度の欠を補うものとして、割印証書chirographという証書形式が成立し、現代の公正証書indentureの先駆となった。

［鵜川　馨］

『鷲田哲夫「フランスにおける古文書学の発達」（『古文書研究』創刊号所収・1968・吉川弘文館）』▽『鵜川馨「英国における古文書学と古書体学」（『古文書研究』第12号所収・1978・吉川弘文館）』