National Diet - Kokai

Japanese: 国会 - こっかい

It is a bicameral parliament consisting of the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors (Article 42 of the Constitution). The name "Diet" has been widely used since the Diet Promotion Alliance was established in 1880 (Meiji 13). When the Meiji Constitution (Constitution of the Empire of Japan) was enacted in 1889, it came to be called the Imperial Diet, but when the Constitution of Japan came into effect in 1947 (Showa 22) during the occupation after World War II, it was renamed the National Diet. The first Diet was held on May 20 of the same year.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

The status of the National Diet

The Diet is a national organ that represents the sovereign people and realizes their will, and the Constitution stipulates that "The Diet shall be the highest organ of state power and shall be the sole law-making organ of the State" (Article 41). The highest organ of state power means that it is politically supreme in the sense that it directly represents the sovereign people and occupies a position to realize their will, and the sole legislative organ means that, in principle, legislation other than that enacted by the Diet is not permitted, and the legislative power of the Diet is complete and does not require the participation of other organs. However, as exceptions, the Constitution grants each House of the Diet the power to enact House Rules (Article 58, paragraph 2) and the Supreme Court the power to enact Supreme Court Rules (Article 77).

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Composition of the National Diet

Bicameral system

Under the Meiji Constitution, the Japanese parliament consisted of the House of Peers and the House of Representatives. When the Constitution of Japan was being drafted, the proposal presented by GHQ (Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers) was for a unicameral system, but at the insistence of the Japanese government, a bicameral system was adopted, with the parliament consisting of the House of Councillors and the House of Representatives.

The main organizational differences between the two Houses are (1) the number of seats, (2) the terms of office, (3) the ages at which seats are upheld, and (4) the electoral districts. There are no fundamental organizational differences between the two Houses, but there are significant differences between the two Houses in terms of their powers.

[1] Superiority of the House of Representatives As seen in Western countries, the House of Representatives has the traditional idea that the lower house directly represents the will of the people, and therefore has stronger powers than the House of Councillors. For example, it has the power to pass a vote of no confidence in the Cabinet, which the House of Councillors does not have, budget bills are discussed first, and the decisions of the House of Representatives take precedence over those of the House of Councillors in matters such as passing bills, passing budgets, approving treaties, and nominating the Prime Minister. This is called a lame bicameral system, and this superiority of the House of Representatives (lower house) is generally a common phenomenon in modern democratic countries.

[2] Characteristics of the House of Councillors What is expected of the House of Councillors is to correct the recklessness and excesses of the "politics of numbers" of the House of Representatives and to carry out "politics of reason," to stand outside the party battles while being based on the people, and to gather neutral and fair knowledge. Initially, many of the members did not belong to any political party, but belonged to the Ryokufukai, which took a pro- and pro-noun approach. However, the House of Councillors gradually moved in the direction of becoming a political party, and the Ryokufukai disappeared in the 1965 regular election. Since then, the party-based nature of the House of Councillors has become more and more evident, and as its representative function has become the same as that of the House of Representatives, the benefits of a bicameral system have been lost, and various discussions have been held about its reason for existence. Then, for the nationwide constituencies, the Public Offices Election Law was revised (August 1982) to adopt a proportional representation method based on candidate lists compiled by political parties and political organizations that meet certain requirements, especially for reasons such as the excessive cost of elections and the difficulty of election campaigns. As a result, the tendency to become even more party-centered has progressed.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Organization of the National Diet

[1] Number of seats The House of Representatives had been using a medium-sized constituency system since 1947, but in 1994 it was changed to a system of single-seat constituencies and proportional representation, with the number of seats now at 289 for single-seat constituencies and 176 for proportional representation. The House of Councillors was originally established with a different composition from the House of Representatives, with 100 seats for national constituencies and 152 seats for local constituencies, but in 1982 the national constituency system was changed to a proportional representation system, with 100 seats for proportional representation and 148 seats for constituencies. As a result, the two houses are similar, and the House of Councillors is described as a "carbon copy of the House of Representatives." The allocation of the number of seats is subject to revision based on the results of the national census. The number of seats for the House of Representatives was revised four times when the medium-sized constituency system was in place, and then in 1994 a system of single-seat constituencies and proportional representation was adopted. The number of seats for the House of Councillors has also been revised several times since 1994. In spite of these adjustments, the disparity in the number of seats in each electoral district due to population shifts has not yet been eliminated. Such disparities run counter to equality of suffrage and numerous lawsuits have been filed against the constitution for both the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors.

[2] Officers Each House of the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors shall have the following officers: a Speaker, a Deputy Speaker, a pro tempore Speaker, chairpersons of standing committees, and a Secretary General. There shall be one Speaker and one Deputy Speaker, and their terms of office shall correspond to their respective terms as Members of the Diet. The Speaker shall maintain order in the House, organize proceedings, supervise the affairs of the House, and represent the House. In the event that the Speaker is unable to act or the position is vacant, the Deputy Speaker shall assume the duties of the Speaker, and in the event that both the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are unable to act, a pro tempore shall be elected to perform the duties of the Speaker. Chairpersons of standing committees shall be elected from among the standing committee members of each House. A Secretary General shall be elected in each House from among those who are not Members of the Diet, and shall manage the affairs of the House under the supervision of the Speaker and sign official documents.

[3] Committees There are two types of committees in each House: standing committees and special committees (Article 40 of the Diet Law). There are 17 standing committees in both the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors, and each member is a standing committee member for at least one. Special committees are established from time to time to examine matters that each House deems necessary or specific matters that do not fall under the jurisdiction of the standing committees. Standing committee members and special committee members are assigned to each political party in proportion to the number of members they have. In the Imperial Diet under the Meiji Constitution, bills were discussed mainly in the plenary session (plenary session-centered system), but now they are discussed mainly in committees (committee-centered system). For this reason, committees are positioned as important organizations in the activities of the Diet, and are sometimes called small legislatures. This system is based on the idea that in order to make deliberations in each House efficient, it is convenient to thoroughly discuss matters in a committee consisting of a small number of members, and then to bring them to the House meeting (plenary session) after that.

[4] The House of Representatives and the House of Councillors each deliberate and make decisions independently (the principle of independent activity), but as an exception, a conference meeting may be held across both houses. In other words, a conference meeting is established for the purpose of reaching a compromise between the two houses when their opinions differ on a bill. It is held when one house requests a meeting with the other house when necessary, and the other house agrees. The members are ten members elected by each house.

[5] Attached Organs Each House shall have a secretariat and a Legislative Bureau, and the Diet shall have a National Diet Library and an Impeachment Court. The secretariat shall have a Secretary-General, Counsellors and other staff. The Legislative Bureau shall be established to assist Diet members in drafting legislation, and shall be composed of a Director-General, Counsellors and other staff. The National Diet Library shall be established to assist Diet members in their research and studies, and to provide library services to the executive and judicial branches of government and the general public. An Impeachment Court shall be established to try judges who have been prosecuted for removal from office.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Member of Parliament

Diet members are in a position to represent the entire nation, and are not agents of any particular region, political party, or profession. Furthermore, their activities are not supposed to be bound by the will or instructions of voters or any other people. However, in reality, they are strongly bound by political parties, and it cannot be denied that they are also burdened with the role of representing the interests of a certain region or electoral body.

The House of Representatives has 465 members, serves four-year terms, and the eligibility to be elected is at least 25 years old. The House of Councillors has 248 members, serves six-year terms, and the eligibility to be elected is at least 30 years old.

To enable them to fully fulfill their responsibilities, members are given privileges such as immunity from liability (Article 51 of the Constitution) and immunity from arrest (Article 50 of the Constitution), as well as the right to demand annual salary (Article 49 of the Constitution). In addition, members have the right to participate in the activities of each House, including the right to initiate proposals, ask questions, debate, and vote. Members are obligated to serve on at least one standing committee and to attend plenary sessions and committee meetings. Members who disrupt order within the House are subject to disciplinary action.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Powers of the National Assembly

As the Diet is generally referred to as the legislative branch, it is the "sole legislative organ of the nation" and has a wide range of powers related to national legislation, including the enactment of laws, the initiation of constitutional amendments, the resolution of the budget, and the approval of treaties. At the same time, as the "highest organ of state power," it has important powers in national politics, such as the power to nominate the Prime Minister and the power to impeach judges. In exercising the powers of the Diet, both Houses meet separately and make decisions separately, but the decisions of both Houses must be consistent, and in this respect, it is distinguished from the "powers of the Houses" which are exercised by each House separately.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Legislative powers

Legislation, in a formal sense, is the act of enacting a law, and is carried out in the following stages: proposal, deliberation, resolution, signature (signed by the relevant Minister of State and countersigned by the Prime Minister), and promulgation (promulgated by the Emperor and published in the Official Gazette). Bills can be proposed by Diet members, and can also be submitted by the Cabinet. There are differing views on whether the Cabinet has the right to submit bills, but the prevailing view is that this is the case, and in reality, the number of bills submitted by the Cabinet accounts for the majority of bills, but there is a trend toward an increase in bills submitted by Diet members. In order for a Diet member to propose a bill, the support of at least 20 Diet members in the House of Representatives and at least 10 Diet members in the House of Councillors (at least 50 and at least 20 respectively when a budget is involved) is required. When a bill is proposed or submitted, the Speaker immediately refers it to the relevant standing committee, and deliberation is carried out mainly in this standing committee, with little emphasis placed on the plenary session. A bill becomes law when it is passed by both Houses. If the House of Councillors passes a different resolution to a bill passed by the House of Representatives, the bill must be passed again by a two-thirds majority of the members present in the House of Representatives to become law as passed by the House of Representatives (Article 59 of the Constitution).

Each House may only propose amendments to the Constitution with the approval of more than two-thirds of its total membership, and the final decision is left to the results of a national referendum.

Regarding the budget, unlike bills, the budget bill is submitted to the House of Representatives first (this is called the House of Representatives' right to deliberate the budget first). The issue in budget deliberations is whether the Diet has the right to amend the budget, but it is understood that it is free to make reductions, and that upward revisions are permitted as long as they do not impinge on the Cabinet's right to create the budget.

In principle, treaty approval is given in advance for treaties concluded by the Cabinet, but sometimes after the fact. The prevailing view is that a treaty will not come into effect without the approval of the Diet. Regarding whether the Diet has the right to amend treaties, there are both positive and negative views, but the negative view is more prevalent.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

General government affairs powers

In addition to the power to appoint the Prime Minister and the power to impeach judges, the Cabinet also has the power to approve the proclamation of states of emergency as stipulated by law (Article 74 of the Police Law) and the mobilization of the Self-Defense Forces for defense and security purposes (Articles 76 and 78 of the Self-Defense Forces Law). First, the Prime Minister is nominated from among the Diet members by a resolution of the Diet, and the Diet is required to nominate the Prime Minister before any other matters (the superiority of the House of Representatives is recognized). This power, together with the House of Representatives' power to pass a vote of no confidence in the Cabinet, forms the basis of the parliamentary cabinet system.

Next, in the case of impeachment of a judge, instead of a peer trial, an impeachment committee composed of Diet members (ten members elected from each House) will indict the judge, and an impeachment court (seven members elected from each House) will determine whether the judge has seriously violated the duties of his/her office or committed a serious act of misconduct and decide whether or not to remove him/her from office. As the impeachment court is not an organ of the Diet, it can carry out its duties even when the Diet is not in session.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Financial Powers

The Constitution stipulates that "the power to administer the national finances shall be exercised in accordance with the resolutions of the Diet" (Article 83), and establishes the principle of fiscal constitutionalism. First, taxes must be imposed or existing taxes changed by law (Article 84). This is known as the principle of taxation by law. Second, because the people should have oversight over how the national income is spent, the budget must be passed by the Diet (Article 86). Furthermore, it is necessary to inspect whether the expenditures set out in the budget have actually been adhered to, and this is carried out by the Board of Audit, but the Diet may deliberate on the financial statements submitted by the Cabinet along with the audit report and hold the Cabinet accountable (Article 90). The Cabinet must report to the Diet on the state of the nation's finances (Article 91).

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Powers of the House

The powers exercised jointly by both Houses are called the powers of the Diet, while the powers that each House can exercise independently are called the powers of the House. Among these, those commonly granted to both Houses include the right to propose laws, the right of autonomy, the right to investigate national affairs, and the right to accept petitions, while those granted only to the House of Representatives include the right to consider the budget first and the right to pass motions of no confidence in the Cabinet, and the House of Councillors has powers during emergency sessions.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Autonomy

Autonomy is the right of each House to hold proceedings, deliberate, and make decisions independently. Therefore, in order to thoroughly deliberate without interference from other institutions, each House is given the power to decide independently on its own internal organization, operation, and internal discipline. These include the power to judge disputes over the qualifications of its members, the right of self-organization to appoint the Speaker and other officials, the right to establish House rules (there are the Rules of the House of Representatives, the Rules of the House of Councillors, and the Rules of Assembly of the House of Councillors, which are less effective than laws), the right to discipline members (types of punishment include reprimand, apology, suspension from attendance, and expulsion), the power to decide whether to allow the arrest of members during a session as an exception to the immunity from arrest that members have, and the power to request the release of members arrested before the session begins during the session.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Right to investigate national affairs

In order for the Diet to fulfill its responsibilities as the legislative body and the representative body of the people, it is necessary for it to have general investigative powers regarding national affairs. Therefore, the investigative powers extend broadly to all aspects of national affairs, including legislative, administrative, judicial, and financial matters, and it is expected to exercise supervisory powers over these (especially over the administrative administration). In fact, based on this investigative power, the Diet has achieved great success in uncovering numerous cases of corruption, such as the Showa Denko Scandal, the National Management of Coal Mines Scandal, and the Lockheed Scandal. However, there are limits to investigations that violate the independence of the judiciary, investigations into prosecutorial powers equivalent to this, and investigations into matters that fall under the confidentiality obligations of public officials, and investigative methods that violate human rights are not permitted.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Right to vote of no confidence in the Cabinet

This is a power that only the House of Representatives has, and is an important power that forms the basis of the parliamentary cabinet system. In contrast, the Cabinet has the power to dissolve the House of Representatives. In the case of the House of Councillors, a resolution of no confidence may be submitted as a means of pursuing the Cabinet's responsibility, but this has no legal effect and is considered to be merely a de facto means of pursuing responsibility.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

National Diet Activities

[1] Sessions The period during which the Diet is active is called a session, and there are three types: ordinary sessions, extraordinary sessions, and special sessions.

[2] Ordinary, Extraordinary, and Special Sessions Ordinary sessions are convened once a year in January for a term of 150 days. Extraordinary sessions may be convened at the request of more than a quarter of the total members of either House, and special sessions may be convened within 30 days after a general election. The length of the session and extension of the session of extraordinary and special sessions are decided by a unanimous resolution of both Houses, but in the absence of a consensus or in the absence of a resolution by the House of Councillors, the resolution of the House of Representatives prevails. Since the government's intentions are usually realized under the principle of a parliamentary cabinet system, the opposition parties may strongly oppose the government's convenient extension of the session, causing chaos in the Diet. Ordinary sessions may be extended once, and extraordinary and special sessions may be extended only twice.

[3] Convocation The act of initiating a session is called convocation, and is convened by the Emperor with the advice and approval of the Cabinet. However, if more than one-fourth of the total members of either House so request, the Cabinet must decide to convene an extraordinary session.

[4] Recess The Constitution of Japan does not allow for the suspension of the Diet as in the Meiji Constitution, but it does allow for the Diet to be recessed by a unanimous resolution of both Houses, and for each House to be recessed (for up to ten days) by resolution of that House.

A recess is when the Diet or a House of Representatives suspends its activities, and is carried out for national events, the year-end and New Year holidays, or other reasons that are necessary to meet bills. What is commonly called a "natural recess" is a recess that is carried out by custom or agreement without a resolution, such as a recess for the year-end and New Year holidays.

[5] Dissolution of the House of Representatives Dissolution is an act to terminate the term of office of the members before its expiration, and is performed by the Emperor with the advice and approval of the Cabinet. It is only permitted for the House of Representatives, not for the House of Councillors. Dissolution takes place during the Diet session, and the session ends at the same time. The House of Councillors is closed. According to the Constitution of Japan, when the House of Representatives passes a motion of no confidence or rejects a motion of confidence, the Cabinet must choose to either dissolve the House of Representatives or resign en masse (Article 69 of the Constitution). However, it is understood that the Cabinet may decide to dissolve the House of Representatives at any time when it deems it necessary, not limited to the above-mentioned cases, based on Article 7 of the Constitution. For example, cases where there is doubt about the extent to which the House of Representatives represents the public opinion at that time, when a new important political incident occurs, or when the Cabinet intends to make a fundamental change to its policies may be considered. When the House of Representatives is dissolved, a general election for members of the House of Representatives is held within 40 days of the date of dissolution.

[6] Emergency Session of the House of Councillors It is desirable for the Diet to be ready to convene at all times, but after the dissolution of the House of Representatives, it is impossible to convene the Diet during the period until a new Diet is formed. Therefore, the system of emergency sessions of the House of Councillors was established to enable the House of Councillors to temporarily act on behalf of the Diet in the event of an emergency need requiring a Diet resolution during this period (Article 54, paragraph 2 of the Constitution). An emergency session of the House of Councillors is held at the request of the Cabinet, and any decisions made there must receive the consent of the House of Representatives within ten days after the next Diet session opens. An emergency session has been held twice, in 1952 and 1953.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Parliamentary Procedures Act

The purpose of the Diet's parliamentary procedures is to ensure that its activities are carried out efficiently. Therefore, while the authority of the majority's statements must be recognized, the minority's statements must also be fully guaranteed. In this respect, if there is a political stability between the two major parties, there will be no problems with parliamentary procedures, but in the case of a divided Diet, the Diet must be interpreted from the standpoint of respecting each party.

[1] Quorum and voting In a collegial system, it is often practically difficult for all members to gather at the same time to make decisions, so a certain number of people is usually required to be present, and this certain number is called a quorum. The quorum for proceedings (the number of people required to act as a meeting) and for voting (the number required to make decisions) is one-third of the total number of members for a plenary session and half of the committee members for a committee. In principle, votes are made by a majority of the members present, and in the event of a tie, the chairperson (chairman) has the deciding vote.

[2] Principle of Openness In principle, the activities of the Diet are open to the public (however, this principle is not always observed in committees, etc.). However, a secret meeting may be held with a majority vote of two-thirds or more of the members present. There is freedom of observation of meetings and freedom of the press, and the public can learn about the contents of meetings through various forms of mass communication. People may observe meetings through introductions by Diet members, or tickets may be distributed on a first-come, first-served basis. Based on the principle of openness, both Houses are required to keep, publish, and distribute to the public the minutes of their meetings.

[3] Principle of Non-reconsideration and Non-continuation of Session Non-reconsideration refers to the principle that once a decision has been made in a House, the same matter may not be deliberated again during the same session.

In addition, the "principle of non-continuation of sessions" is also recognized, which states that a matter that has not been resolved during the same session will not be continued to the next session unless each House resolves to continue consideration.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

"Oishi Makoto, Parliamentary Law (2001, Yuhikaku)" ▽ "Asano Ichiro and Kono Hisashi, New Dictionary of the National Diet (2008, Yuhikaku)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

衆議院および参議院で構成される二院制の議会をいう（憲法42条）。国会という名称は、1880年（明治13）国会期成同盟が成立して以来広く用いられていた。1889年明治憲法（大日本帝国憲法）が制定されて、帝国議会といわれるようになったが、第二次世界大戦後の占領下の1947年（昭和22）日本国憲法が施行されて、国会と改称された。同年5月20日第1回国会が開かれた。

［池田政章］

国会の地位

国会は主権を有する国民を代表しその意思を実現する国家機関であり、憲法は「国会は、国権の最高機関であつて、国の唯一の立法機関である」（41条）と定めている。国権の最高機関とは、主権者である国民を直接に代表し、その意思を実現する地位を占めるという意味において政治的に最高であるということであり、唯一の立法機関とは、国会による立法以外の立法は原則として許されず、かつ国会の立法権は完結的なもので、他の機関の参与を必要としないことを意味する。ただし、憲法は例外として、議院規則の制定権を国会各議院に（58条2項）、最高裁判所規則の制定権を最高裁判所に（77条）認めている。

［池田政章］

国会の構成

両院制

明治憲法では、貴族院と衆議院で構成されていた。日本国憲法が制定されるとき、GHQ（連合国最高司令部）から提示された案は一院制であったが、日本政府の主張により両院制（二院制）を採用、参議院と衆議院で構成されることになった。

　両院のおもな組織上の違いは、(1)議員定数が異なる、(2)議員任期が異なる、(3)被選挙年齢が異なる、(4)選挙区が異なる、などであり、組織上ではそれほど根本的な違いはないが、権能の点で両者の間には大きな違いがある。

〔1〕衆議院の優越性　欧米諸国にみられるように、下院は国民の意思を直接代表するものとする伝統的な考え方に従って、下院に相当する衆議院の権限は参議院よりも強大である。たとえば、参議院のもたない内閣不信任決議権を有し、予算案を先議し、法律案の議決、予算の議決、条約の承認、内閣総理大臣の指名などにおいて、衆議院の議決が参議院の議決に優先する。これを跛行的両院制(はこうてきりょういんせい)とよぶが、このような衆議院（下院）の優越は、一般に現代の民主国家において共通の現象である。

〔2〕参議院の特質　参議院に期待されているものは、衆議院の「数の政治」に対して、その軽率や行きすぎを是正し「理の政治」を行うことであり、国民に基礎を置きながら政党の争いの外にたち、中立公正な知識を結集することである。当初、議員は政党に属さず、是々非々主義をとる緑風会に属する者が多数いたが、しだいに政党化の方向をたどり、緑風会は1965年の通常選挙で消滅した。その後、参議院の政党化はますます顕著になり、その代表的機能が衆議院と変わらなくなって、両院制のもつメリットが失われるに伴い、その存在理由について種々議論されてきた。そして、全国区については、とくに選挙費用がかかりすぎる、選挙運動がたいへんであるなどの理由によって、一定の要件を備えた政党・政治団体の作成する候補者名簿による比例代表選出方法が公職選挙法改正（1982年8月）によって採用された。そのため、いっそう政党中心の傾向が進んでいる。

［池田政章］

国会の組織

〔1〕議員定数　衆議院は1947年から長い間行われてきた中選挙区制が1994年（平成6）小選挙区比例代表並立制に改められ、議員定数は小選挙区選出289人、比例代表選出176人である。参議院は当初、全国区100人と地方区152人の選挙制度で、衆議院と異なる構成になるように始められたが、1982年に全国区は比例代表制に変更され、比例代表選出100人、選挙区選出148人となった。そのため両院は似たようなものとなり、参議院は「衆議院のカーボン・コピー」と評されてもいる。議員定数の配分については国勢調査の結果によって更正することになっており、衆議院議員では、中選挙区制のときには4回の手直しが行われ、さらに1994年に小選挙区比例代表並立制が採用された。参議院議員についても1994年以降、数度の手直しが行われた。以上の手直しにもかかわらず、人口移動により、各選挙区間にみられる議員定数の不均衡はいまだに解消されていない。このような較差は選挙権の平等に反するとして、衆参両議院いずれについても、その違憲を主張する訴訟が何度も起こされている。

〔2〕役員　衆参各議院には議長、副議長、仮議長、常任委員長、事務総長の役員が置かれる。議長、副議長は各1名で任期はおのおの議員としての任期による。議長は、議院の秩序を保持し、議事を整理し、議院の事務を監督し、議院を代表する。議長に事故があるとき、または議長が欠けたときには副議長が、議長・副議長がともに事故があるときには、仮議長を選挙し、議長の職務を行う。常任委員長は、各議院の常任委員のなかから選挙される。事務総長は、各議院において国会議員以外の者から選挙され、議長の監督のもとに議会の事務を統理し、公文に署名する。

〔3〕委員会　各議院の委員会には常任委員会と特別委員会の2種類がある（国会法40条）。常任委員会は衆議院、参議院ともに17、議員は少なくとも一個の常任委員となる。特別委員会は、各議院においてとくに必要があると認めた案件、または常任委員会の所管に属さない特定の案件を審査するために随時設置される。常任委員および特別委員は、各会派の所属議員数の比率により各会派に割り当てて選任される。明治憲法下の帝国議会では、本会議を中心にして議案の審議が行われたが（本会議中心主義）、現在は委員会を中心にそれが行われている（委員会中心主義）。そのため委員会は、国会の活動の重要な組織として位置づけられ、小立法府とよばれることもある。この制度は、各議院における審議を能率的ならしめるためには、少数の議員からなる委員会で十分に審議を尽くし、それが終わってから議院の会議（本会議）にかけるのが便利だという考えに基づいている。

〔4〕両院協議会　衆参両議院はそれぞれ独立して議事を行い議決するが（独立活動の原則という）、例外として、両議院にまたがる両院協議会が開かれることがある。すなわち議案について両議院の意見が対立した場合に、両者の間に妥協案を成立させる目的で設けられる。必要があったときに一院が他院に向かって開くことを求め、他院がこれに応じたときに開かれる。メンバーは各議院で選挙されたおのおの10人の委員で組織される。

〔5〕付置機関　各議院には事務局および法制局が設置され、また国会には国立国会図書館および弾劾裁判所が設置される。事務局には事務総長、参事そのほかの職員が置かれる。法制局は議員の法制に関する立案に資するために置かれ、法制局長、参事その他の職員によって構成される。国立国会図書館は、議員の調査研究に資するとともに、行政・司法の各部門および国民一般に対し図書館奉仕を提供するために設置される。また弾劾裁判所は罷免の訴追を受けた裁判官を裁判するために設置される。

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議員

国会議員は全国民を代表する地位に置かれ、特定の地方、党派、職業の代理人ではない。またその活動について、選挙人その他なんぴとの意思や指図にも拘束されることがないとされるが、現実には政党による拘束が強く、また一定地域あるいは選出母体の利益代表という性格を負わされていることも否定できない。

　衆議院議員は定数465人、任期4年で、被選挙資格は満25年以上。参議院議員は248人、任期6年で、被選挙資格は満30年以上である。

　議員はその職責を十分に果たすことができるように、免責特権（憲法51条）、不逮捕特権（憲法50条）の特典が与えられているほか、歳費請求権（憲法49条）を有する。また、それぞれの議院の活動に参加する権能として、発議権、質問権、質疑権、討論権、表決権をもつ。議員は少なくとも一個の常任委員となり、本会議、委員会に出席する義務がある。院内の秩序を乱した議員は懲罰に付せられる。

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国会の権能

国会は一般に立法府とよばれているように、「国の唯一の立法機関」として、法律の制定をはじめ、憲法改正の発議、予算の議決、条約の承認など、広く国の立法に関する権能をもっている。同時に「国権の最高機関」としてそれにふさわしい国政上の重要な権能、たとえば内閣総理大臣指名権、裁判官弾劾権などを有する。国会の権能の行使については、両議院は別々に会議を開き、別々に議決をするわけであるが、両院の議決が一致することが必要で、この点で、両院がそれぞれ単独で行使する「議院の権能」とは区別される。

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立法に関する権限

立法とは、形式的意味では法律を制定する作用で、発案、審議、議決、署名（主任の国務大臣が署名し、内閣総理大臣が連署する）、公布（天皇が公布し、官報に掲載される）の段階で行われる。法律案は議員によって発議されるほか、内閣もこれを提出することができる。内閣にも法律案の提出権があるかについて学説は分かれるが、通説はこれを認め、実際にも行われており、実状は内閣提出法案の数がその大半を占めているが、議員提出の法案が増加する傾向がみられる。議員が法律案を発議するには、衆議院においては議員20人以上、参議院においては議員10人以上（予算を伴う場合は、それぞれ50人以上、20人以上）の賛成が必要である。法律案が発議または提出されると、議長はただちにこれを所管の常任委員会に付託し、審議はこの常任委員会を中心に展開され、本会議にはそれほどの力点は置かれていない。法律案は両議院で可決したとき法律となる。衆議院で可決した法律案について、参議院でこれと異なった議決をしたときは、衆議院で出席議員の3分の2以上の多数でふたたび可決すれば、衆議院で議決した内容で法律として成立する（憲法59条）。

　憲法改正案については、各議院はその総議員の3分の2以上の賛成による発議だけをなし、最終決定は国民投票の結果にゆだねられる。

　予算の議決については、法律案と異なり、まず先に予算案が衆議院に提出される（衆議院の予算先議権という）。予算審議で問題となるのは、国会が修正権をもつかどうかという点であるが、減額修正は自由にでき、増額修正は内閣の予算作成権を害しない程度なら認められると解されている。

　条約の承認は、内閣が締結した条約について、原則として事前に、またときによって事後になされる。国会の承認がなければ条約の効力は生じないと解する説が有力である。また国会が条約の修正権を有するかという点について、肯定説、否定説の両説があるが、否定説が有力である。

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一般国政に関する権限

内閣総理大臣の指名権、裁判官弾劾裁判権のほか、法律が定める緊急事態の布告の承認（警察法74条）、自衛隊の防衛出動・治安出動の承認（自衛隊法76条・78条）などを有する。まず、内閣総理大臣は、国会の議決によって国会議員のなかから指名されるが、その際、国会は、他のすべての案件に先だって内閣総理大臣の指名を行うことになっている（衆議院の優越が認められる）。この権能は、衆議院の内閣不信任決議権と相まって、議院内閣制の基礎をなす。

　次に、裁判官の弾劾については、いわゆる同僚裁判を避けて、国会議員によって構成される裁判官訴追委員会（各議院から各10人を選挙）が訴追し、弾劾裁判所（各議院から各7人を選挙）が、裁判官に重大な職務上の義務違反や非行があったかどうかを判断し罷免の適否を決する。弾劾裁判所は国会の機関ではないので、閉会中もその職務を行うことができる。

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財政に関する権限

憲法は「国の財政を処理する権限は、国会の議決に基いて、これを行使しなければならない」（83条）と規定し、財政立憲主義の原則を定めた。まず租税を課したり、現行の租税を変えるときは法律によらなければならない（84条）。これを租税法律主義という。次に、国の収入をどのように支出するかについて国民が監督すべきであるから、予算は国会の議決が必要とされる（86条）。さらに、予算によって定められた支出が現実に守られたかどうかを検査する必要があり、会計検査院がそれを行うが、国会は検査報告とともに内閣から提出された決算を審議し、内閣にその責任を問うことができる（90条）。内閣は国会に対して国の財政状況について報告しなければならない（91条）。

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議院の権能

両議院が共同して行う権能を国会の権能というのに対し、各議院が単独に行使しうる権能を議院の権能という。このなかには、両議院に共通に認められるものとして、法律の発案権、自律権、国政調査権、請願の受理などがあり、衆議院にのみ認められるものとして、予算の先議権、内閣不信任決議権などがあり、参議院は緊急集会中の権能を有する。

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自律権

自律権とは、両院がそれぞれ独立して議事を開き、審議・議決する権利である。そこで各院は他の機関から干渉を受けることなく十分に審議を尽くすために、おのおのその内部組織や運営、および内部規律について自主的に決定しうる権限が与えられている。議員の資格に関する争訟を議院自らが裁判する権限、議長その他の役員を選任する自主組織権、議院規則制定権（衆議院規則、参議院規則、参議院集会規則などがあり、その効力は法律に劣る）、議員の懲罰権（懲罰の種類に、戒告、陳謝、登院停止、除名がある）、議員の有する不逮捕特権の例外として会期中にその議員の逮捕を許諾するかどうかを決定する権能、および会期前に逮捕された議員について会期中釈放を要求する権能などがそれである。

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国政調査権

国会が立法府としてまた国民代表機関としての職責を果たすためには、国政に関して一般的な調査権をもつことが必要である。そのため国政調査権は、広く立法、行政、司法、財政に関する事項など国政全般に及び、それらに対する監督的権能（とくに行政に対して）を果たすことが期待されている。事実、これまでに、国会はこの調査権に基づいて、昭電疑獄事件、炭鉱国管事件、ロッキード事件など数々の汚職の摘発などに大きな成果をあげてきた。ただし司法権の独立を侵すような調査、これに準ずる検察権に対する調査、公務員の守秘義務に属する事項に関する調査については限界があり、また人権侵害になるような調査方法は行われてはならないとされる。

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内閣不信任決議権

衆議院のみがもつ権能であり、議院内閣制を基礎づける重要な権能である。これに対して内閣は衆議院の解散権をもつ。参議院の場合は、内閣の責任を追及する手段として問責決議案を提出することがあるが、法的な効力はなく、事実上の責任追及手段にすぎないと解されている。

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国会の活動

〔1〕会期　国会の活動がなされる期間を会期といい、常会、臨時会、特別会の3種類がある。

〔2〕常会・臨時会・特別会　常会は毎年1回1月に召集され、会期は150日間。臨時会はいずれかの議院の総議員の4分の1以上の要求があった場合、臨時に召集され、特別会は総選挙後30日以内に召集される。臨時会・特別会の会期の長さ、および会期の延長は、両議院一致の議決で定めるが、一致しないとき、または参議院が議決しないときは、衆議院の議決が優越する。通常、議院内閣制のたてまえから、政府の意図が実現されるので、政府の便宜的な会期延長に対し、野党が強く反対して国会が混乱に陥ることがある。延長は、常会が1回、臨時会・特別会は2回しか許されない。

〔3〕召集　会期を開始させる行為を召集といい、内閣の助言と承認により天皇が召集するが、いずれかの議院の総議員の4分の1以上の要求があれば、内閣は臨時会の召集を決定しなければならない。

〔4〕休会　日本国憲法は、明治憲法のような停会を認めていないが、両議院一致の議決による国会の休会と、各議院の議決による各議院の休会（10日以内）を認めている。

　休会は、国会または議院が活動を休止することをいい、国の行事、年末年始、そのほか議案の都合によって行われる。俗に「自然休会」とよばれるのは、議決によらず慣例上または申合せによってする休会で、年末年始の休会などがこれにあたる。

〔5〕衆議院の解散　解散は議員の任期をその満了前に終結させる行為で、内閣の助言と承認に基づいて天皇が行う。衆議院だけに認められ、参議院にはない。解散は国会会期中に行われ、会期もそれと同時に終了する。参議院は閉会となる。日本国憲法によれば、内閣は、衆議院で不信任の決議案を可決し、あるいは信任の決議案を否決したときは、衆議院を解散するか、総辞職するかのいずれかを選ばなければならない（憲法69条）とされているが、前述した場合に限らず、憲法第7条に基づいて、内閣は理由があると認めたときは随時、解散の決定を行うことができると解されている。たとえば、衆議院がそのときの国民の世論を代表する程度につき疑いがあると認められる場合、新たに重大な政治上の事件が生じた場合、内閣がその政策の根本的な変更を行おうとする場合などが考えられる。衆議院が解散されたときは、解散の日から40日以内に衆議院議員の総選挙が行われる。

〔6〕参議院の緊急集会　国会はつねに開会できる態勢にあることが望ましいが、衆議院解散後新国会が成立するまでの間は、国会を召集することが不可能である。そこで、この期間中に国会の議決を要する緊急の必要が生じたとき、参議院に国会の権能を臨時に代行せしめるために設けられたのが、参議院の緊急集会の制度である（憲法54条2項）。内閣の求めによって開かれ、そこで決められたことは、次の国会開会ののち10日以内に衆議院の同意を得る必要がある。緊急集会はこれまでに1952年（昭和27）、1953年の2回開かれたことがある。

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国会の議事法

国会の議事手続は、その活動を能率的に行わせることを目的とする。したがって、多数派の発言に対し権威を認めると同時に、少数派の発言も十分に保障しなければならない。その点、二大政党が対立し、政局が安定していれば、議事手続に関し問題は起こらないが、小党分立の場合には、各政党を尊重する立場から議事法の解釈をしなければならない。

〔1〕定足数と表決　合議制は、つねに全員が同時に集合して意思を決定することは事実上困難である場合が多く、普通、一定数の出席があればよいとされ、この一定数を定足数という。議事の定足数（会議として活動できる定数）、議決の定足数（意思を決定することのできる定足数）は、本会議については総議員の3分の1、委員会は委員の半数で、表決は原則として出席議員の過半数で決し、可否同数のときは議長（委員長）が決する。

〔2〕公開の原則　国会の活動は、公開を原則としている（ただし委員会などではこの原則はかならずしも認められていない）。ただ、出席議員の3分の2以上の多数の議決で秘密会となることがある。会議についての傍聴の自由、報道の自由が認められ、国民は各種のマス・コミュニケーションを通じて会議の内容を知ることができる。傍聴には、議員の紹介によるほか、先着順に傍聴券が配布される。公開の原則に基づき、両議院はおのおのその会議録を保存、公表、かつ一般に頒布しなければならないことになっている。

〔3〕一事不再議・会期不継続の原則　一事不再議とは、議院において一度議決が決まったのちは、同じ案件について、同会期中に重ねて審議することを許さない原則をいう。

　また、同一の会期で議決に至らなかった案件は、各議院で継続審査の議決を得ない限り、次の会期に継続しないという「会期不継続の原則」も同様に認められている。

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『大石眞著『議会法』（2001・有斐閣）』▽『浅野一郎・河野久編著『新・国会事典』第2版（2008・有斐閣）』

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