A revolution in which the 13 colonies of British North America united and rebelled against the mother country, achieving separation and independence, forming a new nation, and establishing a republic. In a narrow sense, the period of this revolution is from the end of the French and Indian War in 1763 to the establishment of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, but in a broader sense, it refers to the period until the establishment of the Federal Constitution in 1788. The former emphasizes the aspect of "independence," while the latter emphasizes the aspect of "foundation," and historians seek to understand the Federal Constitution, which finally established the national structure of the new nation, as the final conclusion of the revolution. The American Revolution had the dual task of "independence" and "foundation," and has a unique character not found in the British or French Revolutions. [Masashi Shimakawa] Causes of the RevolutionStrengthening colonial rule by the mother countryAfter the end of the French and Indian War in February 1763, King George III and his cabinet, George Grenville (1712-1770), implemented a series of measures to strengthen colonial rule. These measures were partly to manage the new territories in North America that had been acquired as a result of the war, and partly to deal with the strain on the national treasury caused by wartime finances. Land regulations, revenue legislation, and the strengthening of the mercantilist system were the pillars of these measures, but each of them aroused strong opposition from the colonies. [Masashi Shimakawa] Royal ProclamationAfter the war, Britain acquired a vast territory east of the Mississippi River, stretching from Canada to Florida, but its management, and in particular its relationship with the Native Americans, was a major issue. Triggered by a rebellion led by Native American chief Pontiac in the Detroit area in May 1763, the "Royal Proclamation" was issued in October of the same year. This proclamation prohibited white people from migrating west of the Allegheny Plateau and sought to place trade with the Native Americans under the direct control of the British government, but it drew opposition from the colonists and was effectively ignored. [Masashi Shimakawa] Revenue legislation and strengthened mercantilist regulationsIn order to deal with the financial crisis in the mother country, various revenue laws were enacted and the mercantilist system was strengthened. The Sugar Act of 1764 was an attempt to crack down on smuggling, which had been tolerated until then, and to increase customs revenue, and stipulated import tax rates for many types of foreign products. The Stamp Act of 1765 also made it mandatory to affix revenue stamps to all printed matter, including official documents and newspapers. This tax law was perceived as oppressive towards the colonies, breaking with previous practice, as it was a direct tax rather than an indirect tax, and sparked a large opposition movement. Protests were held in various places, under the slogan "No taxation without representation," under the pretext of the right of British subjects, and took various forms, from opposition resolutions in colonial assemblies to direct action by the people. A popular movement organization called the "Sons of Liberty" was formed in all the colonies, and violent demonstrations were repeatedly held, including the burning of stamp sellers and the governor's house, and street demonstrations. The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but was replaced by the Townshend Acts in 1767. These acts aimed to increase customs duties and indirect taxes, and to demonstrate the superiority of the British Parliament. However, opposition to the act arose again, and boycotts of British products were formed in various places, forcing the British government to retreat again. The Tea Act of 1773 was the final turning point in the crisis between the British and the colonies. The act was intended to save the East India Company, but it aroused the resentment of merchants and other colonists, leading to the Boston Tea Party in the same year. In response to the colonists' violent protests against the East India Company's monopoly on tea sales, the British Parliament enacted the Punitive Acts of 1774, which closed the port of Boston and suspended the self-government of the Massachusetts Colony. Furthermore, the Quebec Act of the same year was an attempt to prevent the colonists from moving westward, and relations between the British and the colonies reached their worst point. [Masashi Shimakawa] United Front of the Thirteen ColoniesIn the midst of the resistance against the mother country, revolutionary power structures were born in the colonies. In 1772, the Committee of Correspondence was established as a liaison organization within and among the colonies, and in 1774, the First Continental Congress was held, consisting of representatives from the 12 colonies excluding Georgia. The following year, in 1775, the Second Continental Congress, which would serve as the initial central government, was established by representatives from all 13 colonies. [Masashi Shimakawa] War and DiplomacyIn April 1775, British troops and colonial militia exchanged fire at Lexington and Concord, marking the beginning of the War of Independence. Even after the start of hostilities, the colonies did not give up hope of reconciliation with the mother country, but as the situation worsened and the independence movement, as represented by Thomas Paine's Common Sense, grew, the Continental Congress finally issued the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, in July 1776, and the war clearly developed from a civil war into a war for independence. The American army was mainly made up of poorly equipped militia, and at times they were not even provided with enough clothing, but they fought a guerilla war to defend their homeland against the British, defeating them at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777 and at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781, which was effectively their final battle. France, Britain's arch enemy, had always been friendly to the United States, but after the signing of the Franco-American Treaty of Alliance in 1778, they provided full-scale economic and military assistance. The United States gained an advantage over the British Navy thanks to the French Navy, and the French Army supported it. Spain also declared war on Britain in 1779. [Masashi Shimakawa] State Constitutions and Articles of ConfederationState ConstitutionIn parallel with the struggle for independence from the mother country, the creation of 13 republics was underway. In some cases, the colonial charters were used as state constitutions, but in many states, debate took place over the drafting of constitutions. The conservative faction took the view that the people were ignorant, and wanted to eliminate their political influence as much as possible, and to maintain the current social order through the hands of the educated and wealthy. On the other hand, the radical faction set the goal of the revolution as the thorough implementation of democratic politics, and demanded the realization of universal male suffrage, proportional representation of seats in the legislature, annual elections for legislators and civil servants, and freedom of religion. Pennsylvania enacted the most radical state constitution, but in many states, constitutions were created in line with the wishes of the conservative leadership, including restrictions on property qualifications for voting and eligibility to be elected, and the governor's veto power over laws. [Masashi Shimakawa] Articles of Confederation and CongressThe Continental Congress, as a unified organization of the 13 states, only loosely linked the states together. The need for a fundamental law for the nation was recognized early on, and the "Articles of Confederation," America's first constitution, was enacted in 1778. The content of this constitution was to form a highly decentralized federation in which each state would maintain its sovereignty while entrusting limited authority, such as national defense, foreign affairs, coinage, and Indian policy, to the "Confederated Congress," made up of representatives from each state. [Masashi Shimakawa] Results and Significance"Independence" was achieved with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, and after the period of confederation, the task of "founding the nation" was also concluded with the establishment of the United States Constitution in 1788. There were some successes in terms of the issues of the civil revolution, such as the abolition of feudal relics such as primogeniture and entitlement, and the abolition of the monarchy, but the conservatism seen in the state and federal constitutions, such as the denial of universal suffrage, the development of slavery in the South, and the stagnation of political and social reform, exemplified by the disregard for the rights of native Indians, remained as issues for the coming era. [Masashi Shimakawa] "A Study of the Value System of the American Revolution" by Takenori Tadami (1972, Aki Shobo)" ▽ "The American Revolution - Conservatism of the Status Quo and Changes in Ideology" by Saito Makoto (included in "General Research on America 3," 1976, Kenkyusha, 1976)" ▽ "American Classics Library 16: The American Revolution," edited and translated by Saito Makoto and Igarashi Takeshi (1978, Kenkyusha, 1978)" ▽ "The American Revolution" by Tomita Torao (included in "Introduction to the Study of American History," 2nd edition, edited by Shimizu Tomohisa, Takahashi Akira, and Tomita Torao, 1980, Yamakawa Publishing, 1980)" ▽ "The American Revolution" by Imazu Akira (Shiseido Shinsho, 1980)" [References] | [Chronology] |©Shogakukan "> Developments in the War of Independence Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
イギリス領北アメリカの13植民地が連合して本国に反抗し、分離・独立を達成するとともに、新国家を形成し、共和制の確立を成し遂げた革命。この革命の期間は、狭義には1763年のフレンチ・アンド・インディアン戦争の終結から1783年のパリ平和条約の成立までをさすが、広義には、1788年の連邦憲法成立までの期間をさす。前者は「独立」の側面を重視するものであるが、後者は「建国」の側面を重視して、新国家の国家構造を最終的に確定した連邦憲法を革命の総決算として把握しようという歴史家の立場である。アメリカ革命は「独立」と「建国」という二重の課題をもっていたのであり、イギリス革命やフランス革命にない独自の性格をもっている。 [島川雅史] 革命の原因本国による植民地支配の強化1763年2月のフレンチ・アンド・インディアン戦争の終結後、イギリス国王ジョージ3世とグレンビルGeorge Grenville(1712―1770)内閣は植民地支配の強化策を次々と打ち出した。それは一つには、戦争の結果獲得した北アメリカの新領土の経営をめぐるものであり、また一つには、戦時財政による国庫の窮迫に対処しようとするものであった。土地規制策、歳入対策の諸立法、重商主義体制の強化策がその柱となったが、それぞれが植民地の強い反対を呼び起こすことになった。 [島川雅史] 国王宣言戦後イギリスは、カナダからフロリダに及ぶミシシッピ川以東の広大な領土を獲得したが、その経営、とりわけ先住民との関係は重大な問題であった。1763年5月、デトロイト地方で先住民ポンティアックの首長の指導下に起こった反乱を契機として、同年10月に発布されたのが「国王宣言」である。この宣言は、アレゲニー高原以西への白人の移住を禁じ、先住民との交易を本国政府の直轄下に置こうとしたものであるが、植民地人の反発を買い、事実上無視されてしまった。 [島川雅史] 歳入対策立法と重商主義的規制の強化本国の財政危機に対処するために、さまざまな歳入法が制定されるとともに、重商主義体制の強化が図られた。1764年の砂糖法は、従来黙認されていた密貿易を取り締まり、関税収入の増加を図ろうとしたもので、多くの種類の外国産品に対する輸入税率を規定していた。また1765年の印紙法は、公文書、新聞などあらゆる印刷物に収入印紙を貼付(ちょうふ)することを義務づけるものであった。この税法は、間接税ではなく直接税であるという点で、従来の慣例を破る植民地への圧政として受け取られ、大きな反対運動を巻き起こした。「代表なくして課税なし」というイギリス臣民の権利を掲げて各地で展開された抗議行動は、植民地議会の反対決議から民衆の直接行動までを含むさまざまな形で行われた。全植民地で「自由の子供たち」と名のる民衆運動組織が結成され、印紙販売人や総督宅の焼き打ち、街頭デモなどが激しく繰り返された。1766年に印紙法は撤回されたが、1767年にタウンゼンド諸法がこれにかわった。これは関税・間接税の増徴を図るとともに本国議会の優位を誇示しようとしたものであったが、ふたたび反対運動が起こり、各地で本国産品不買同盟が結成され、本国政府はふたたび後退を余儀なくされた。本国・植民地間の危機を決定的にしたのは1773年の茶法であった。これは東インド会社の救済を目的としたものであったが、商人をはじめとする植民地人の反感をよび、同年のボストン茶会事件を引き起こすことになった。東インド会社の紅茶独占販売権に実力行使で立ち向かった植民地人に対し、本国議会は1774年懲罰諸法を制定し、ボストン港閉鎖、マサチューセッツ植民地の自治の停止などを決定した。さらに、同年のケベック法によって植民地人の西進を阻もうとしたため、本国・植民地間の関係は最悪の状態になった。 [島川雅史] 13植民地の統一戦線本国への抵抗運動を展開するなかで、植民地には革命権力機構が生まれていた。1772年には植民地内、植民地間の連絡組織としての通信連絡委員会が設けられ、1774年にはジョージアを除く12植民地の代表からなる第1回大陸会議が開催された。翌1775年には、初期の中央政府としての役割を果たすことになる第2回大陸会議が全13植民地の代表によって設立された。 [島川雅史] 戦争と外交1775年4月、レキシントンとコンコードでイギリス軍と植民地民兵隊との間で銃火が交えられ、独立戦争の火ぶたが切って落とされた。交戦開始後も植民地は本国との和解の希望を捨てなかったが、情勢の悪化と、トマス・ペインの『コモン・センス』に代表される独立論の高まりのなかで、1776年7月、大陸会議はついにトーマス・ジェファソン起草の「独立宣言」を発し、戦争は内乱状態から明確に独立のための戦争へと発展することになった。アメリカ軍は装備の悪い民兵を中心とし、ときには衣服すら満足に支給されない状態であったが、郷土防衛のゲリラ戦を展開してイギリス軍に立ち向かい、1777年のサラトガの戦いや、事実上最後の戦闘となった1781年のヨークタウンの戦いでイギリス軍を打ち破った。またイギリスの宿敵フランスは、従来からアメリカに好意的であったが、1778年の米仏同盟条約の締結後は本格的な経済・軍事援助を行った。アメリカは、フランス海軍の力によってイギリス海軍に対抗できるようになり、フランス陸軍の応援も得て戦況を有利に進めた。またスペインも1779年に対英宣戦布告に踏み切っている。 [島川雅史] 邦憲法と連合規約邦憲法本国からの独立の戦いと併行して、13の共和ステート(邦)の建設が進められた。植民地特許状をそのまま邦憲法とした例もあるが、多くの邦ではその立案をめぐって論争が行われた。保守派は、民衆とは無知なものであるという観点にたち、民衆の政治的影響力をできるだけ排除し、教育のある富裕者の手によって現行の社会秩序を維持しようと望んだ。一方、急進派は、民主政治の徹底を革命の目的として掲げ、男子普通選挙、議員定数の人口比例、議員・官吏の毎年選挙、信教の自由などの実現を要求した。ペンシルベニアではもっとも急進的な邦憲法が制定されたが、多くの邦では、選挙権・被選挙権の財産資格制限、法律に対する知事の拒否権を含む保守的指導層の意向に沿った憲法がつくられた。 [島川雅史] 連合規約と連合会議13邦の統一組織としての大陸会議は、諸邦を緩やかに結び付けていたにすぎなかった。一国家としての基本法の必要は早くから認識されており、1778年アメリカ最初の憲法というべき「連合規約」が制定された。その内容は、各邦が主権を維持しつつ、国防、外交、鋳貨、インディアン対策などの限定された権限を、各邦代表からなる「連合会議」にゆだねる、というきわめて分権的な連邦を形成しようとするものであった。 [島川雅史] 結果と意義1783年のパリ平和条約で「独立」は達成され、連合の時代を経て、1788年成立の合衆国憲法によって「建国」の課題も結論をみた。長子・限嗣相続制などの封建遺制の撤廃、王制廃止など市民革命としての課題でもいちおうの成果をみたが、邦憲法、連邦憲法にみられる普通選挙否定などの保守性、南部黒人奴隷制の展開、原住民インディアンの権利無視に代表される政治的、社会的改革の停頓(ていとん)は、続く時代への課題として残されることになった。 [島川雅史] 『武則忠見著『アメリカ革命の価値体系の研究』(1972・亜紀書房)』▽『斎藤眞著『アメリカ革命――現状の保守と理念の変改』(『総合研究アメリカ 3』1976・研究社・所収)』▽『斎藤眞・五十嵐武士編訳『アメリカ古典文庫 16 アメリカ革命』(1978・研究社)』▽『富田虎男著『アメリカ独立革命』(清水知久・高橋章・富田虎男編『アメリカ史研究入門』第2版・1980・山川出版社・所収)』▽『今津晃著『アメリカ独立革命』(至誠堂新書)』 [参照項目] | [年表] |©Shogakukan"> 独立革命戦争の展開 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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