Azuchi-Momoyama period

Japanese: 安土桃山時代 - あづちももやまじだい

Period

The name of the period when Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi each held political power. It is also called the Shokuho period (Oda-Toyotomi period). The Azuchi period is named after Nobunaga, who moved his base from Gifu Castle in Mino (Gifu Prefecture) to Azuchi Castle in Omi (Shiga Prefecture) in 1576 (Tensho 4) and promoted the project of unifying the country, but the Momoyama period is named after Hideyoshi's castle in Yamashiro (Kyoto Prefecture), where Fushimi later came to be called Momoyama, and is not the name used at the time of Hideyoshi. Furthermore, the political center was Osaka Castle from 1583 (Tensho 11) until Hideyoshi's death in 1598 (Keicho 3), and so in terms of the base of power, it would be more appropriate to call it the "Osaka period." However, "Momoyama" also has a connotation that suits the splendid culture of the time, and so it became established as a period name first in cultural history and is also commonly used in political history.

The Azuchi period is usually divided into the period from September 1568 (Eiroku 11), when Nobunaga came to Kyoto from Gifu with Ashikaga Yoshiaki, to the Honnoji Incident in June 1582 (Tensho 10), but some say it began when Nobunaga expelled Shogun Yoshiaki in July 1573 (Tensho 1), destroying the Muromachi Shogunate in both name and reality. The Momoyama period began after that, and some say it ended in August 1598 (Keicho 3), when Hideyoshi died, or in September 1600 (Keicho 5), when the Tokugawa clan established their hegemony after the Battle of Sekigahara, but here we will follow the theory that the Edo Shogunate was established in February 1603 (Keicho 8) as the benchmark. Although it only lasted for just over 30 years, the Azuchi-Momoyama period was an extremely important period in the development of feudal society and is of great historical significance as it marked a turning point that led to the establishment of early modern feudalism and the feudal domain system under the Tokugawa shogunate in the Edo period.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Politics and Society

Unification by force

Oda Nobunaga was a member of the Oda clan, the deputy governor of Owari (Aichi Prefecture). He established his castle in Kiyosu in Owari and used the fertile Noubi Plain as his base to expand his influence. In 1560 (Eiroku 3), he defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto, the greatest daimyo in the Tokai region, in the Battle of Okehazama, after which he rapidly rose to prominence. In 1567, he defeated Saito Tatsuoki of Mino, moved his castle to Inokuchi and renamed it Gifu. He also had the monk Takugen select a seal that read "Tenka Fubu" ("Unify the World through Military Forces"), demonstrating his ambition to unify the country by force. The following year, in 1568, he traveled to Kyoto with Ashikaga Yoshiaki, and appointed Yoshiaki to the position of shogun, seizing real power himself and marking the beginning of the establishment of a unified central government. Nobunaga utilized his powerful military force, including numerous musketeers, to sweep through Kinai, attack Enryaku-ji Temple on Mount Hiei, eliminate the Azai clan in Omi and the Asakura clan in Echizen (Fukui Prefecture), and then defeat the Takeda clan in Kai (Yamanashi Prefecture) in the Battle of Nagashino. He then fought thoroughly against the Ikko-Ikki rebels in Kinai, Tokai, and the Hokuriku region, destroying them. He then confronted Ishiyama Hongan-ji Temple, which lay behind them, and finally forced the surrender of Ishiyama Castle (Osaka Prefecture) in 1580 (Tensho 8), putting an end to the long battle with Hongan-ji Temple. In 1582, he invaded Kai and destroyed the Takeda clan, then traveled to Kyoto to defeat the Mori clan in Chugoku. While staying at Honnoji Temple in Shijo, Kyoto, he was attacked by his vassal, Akechi Mitsuhide, and committed suicide.

At the time, Hideyoshi was in Bitchu (Okayama Prefecture) as a subordinate general of Nobunaga, but he made peace with the Mori clan and quickly returned, defeated Mitsuhide in the Battle of Yamazaki, and took his first step as Nobunaga's successor. Hideyoshi then defeated Shibata Katsuie, the most powerful rival, in the Battle of Shizugatake, solidifying his position as the successor. In 1584 (Tensho 12), he faced off against Tokugawa Ieyasu of Tokai, who was supporting Nobunaga's son Nobukatsu, in the Battle of Komaki and Nagakute, and used political strategy to force Ieyasu to submit. He also appeased the Mori clan and gained control of Chugoku. He then defeated the Chosokabe clan in 1585 and the Shimazu clan in 1587, expanding his conquest to Chugoku and Kyushu. In 1590, he destroyed the Hojo clan of Sagami (Kanagawa Prefecture), took control of the Kanto region, and forced the Date clan of Oshu to submit. Hideyoshi had thus completed his project of unifying Japan.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Land survey and sword hunt

In parallel with the military unification, various policies were implemented, the most important of which were land surveys and sword hunts. Land surveys had already been conducted among the sengoku daimyo, but Nobunaga began land surveys as soon as he entered Kyoto, ordering Omi Province to submit land registers, and then carried out land surveys in other conquered territories one after another. Nobunaga had not yet dispatched officials or established regulations to carry out the survey, and Hideyoshi also initially adopted the survey method, but later, once a territory was conquered, he would immediately dispatch magistrates to carry out land surveys, or grant fiefs on the condition that a land survey was carried out, and in parallel with the progress of unification, these surveys expanded to a nationwide scale. This was the Taiko land survey. The policy of thoroughly suppressing those who resisted the land survey was adopted, and in the Oshu land survey of 1590 (Tensho 18), if there were any non-cooperators, even castle lords were to be wiped out without exception, and even peasants, even if they lived in one or two villages, were to be wiped out, and the Taiko ordered that the mountains and the seas be thoroughly surveyed until the oars could be heard. The most organized form of the Taiko land survey can be seen in the land survey articles of 1594 (Bunroku 3). The Taiko land survey determined kokumori (average harvest rate per tan) and the tax payers for each cultivated land, and the kokudaka system was established, allowing the area of cultivated land and harvest yields throughout the country to be firmly grasped. In addition, the rule of "Isshiki" and the denial of "Sakuai", that is, the denial of intermediate exploitation based on the principle of one land and one farmer, encouraged the independence of small farmers. Peasants who were registered in the land survey books were tied to that land and forbidden to move.

Meanwhile, in 1588 (Tensho 16), Hideyoshi issued the Sword Hunt Edict, which prohibited peasants from possessing any weapons, in order to prevent armed rebellions by the peasants and to solidify the peasants' social status. In a sense, the land survey and the sword hunt were two sides of the same coin, and were important measures to clearly separate samurai from peasants. This feudal social status order was further enforced by the Social Status Law of August 1591. This law consisted of three articles, which prohibited samurai, chugen, and servants from becoming peasants or townspeople, peasants from abandoning their fields to take up commerce or wage work, and harboring runaways. From this point on, the social status relationships between samurai, peasants, and townspeople became fixed.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

economy

Implementing Rakuichi and Rakuza and abolishing checkpoints

As the medieval manorial land system declined and the manorial system collapsed due to the Taiko land survey, merchants also escaped the narrow confines of the manors and expanded their sphere of activity from the feudal domain economy to the national economy. In order to expand the distribution of goods, the Toyotomi government needed to dismantle the za, the privileged and closed commercial and industrial organizations of the Middle Ages, abolish the checkpoints that were an impediment to distribution, and establish a new distribution system. Sengoku daimyo had already implemented rakuichi (free markets) and rakuza (free courts) for the economic prosperity of their own domains, but Nobunaga implemented them in the town of Kano, under the castle of Gifu, in 1568 (Eiroku 11), and then in the castle town of Azuchi in 1577 (Tensho 5). In particular, the Azuchi code consisted of 13 articles that denied the privileges of the za, exempted various taxes to encourage merchants to settle there, and promised to maintain public order, which became the model for rules in the castle towns of various daimyo thereafter.

Furthermore, the numerous checkpoints, insufficient transport routes, and disorderly circulation of currency all became major obstacles to the development of a commodity economy, so in 1569 (Eiroku 12), Nobunaga abolished checkpoints in the provinces under his control, and as his power expanded, he abolished checkpoints again. As for transport routes, he also worked to improve them by widening the width of roads under his jurisdiction in 1574 (Tensho 2). Hideyoshi then promoted the abolition of checkpoints and the improvement of roads nationwide, revitalizing cities and commerce throughout the country. This further promoted the development of various industries, but the most noteworthy of all was the prosperity of the mining industry. At mines around the country, including the Iwami Silver Mine and the Sado Gold Mine, the amount of production increased dramatically due to advances in mining technology, and it was during this period that new mines were discovered all over the country.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Development of the Monetary Economy

The development of commerce and the increase in gold and silver mining inevitably encouraged the minting and circulation of gold and silver coins. At the time, poor quality coins such as privately minted coins and coins with missing or burnt parts were in circulation alongside good quality coins imported from Ming (China), causing confusion in the transfer of currency, so Nobunaga issued the Erizeni Order in 1569 (Eiroku 12) to set the exchange rate between good and bad coins and to smooth circulation. However, during Nobunaga's time, no new coins were minted, but Hideyoshi minted gold and silver coins, thus unifying currency. Among them, the Tensho oban and koban coins of 1588 (Tensho 16) were extremely high quality gold coins, although they were intended for gifts.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

New economic controls

These policies implemented by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, such as abolishing checkpoints, improving transportation routes, and unifying currency, significantly promoted the formation of a nationwide market. However, the free development of the commodity economy also had a destabilizing effect on the unified feudal land system based on the rice tax system, so Nobunaga and Hideyoshi simultaneously adopted policies to restrain the free development of commerce and bring merchants under their control. When Nobunaga accompanied Ashikaga Yoshiaki to Kyoto, Yoshiaki offered to grant Nobunaga additional territory in Settsu (Osaka Prefecture and Hyogo Prefecture), Izumi (Osaka Prefecture), Omi, and other provinces as a reward for his meritorious service, but Nobunaga declined. Instead, he requested that magistrates be appointed in Sakai in Izumi, and Otsu and Kusatsu in Omi. Hideyoshi also made Sakai, Hakata, Nagasaki, Otsu, and other areas his direct domains in order to bring these major commercial cities under his control.

Nobunaga's Rakuichi Rakuza Order was generally seen as a progressive policy that liberated merchants and industrialists from ancient powers such as shrines, temples, and nobles, and promoted the formation of groups directly under feudal lords, but it has recently become known that it was a castle town concentration policy for the Oda administration to control new territories, and that za privileges were recognized outside of castle towns, and it has also been made clear that checkpoints were not completely abolished, but that the checkpoints on the imperial lands at the seven entrances to Kyoto were allowed to continue in existence. In short, the series of economic policies represented by the za policies of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi were key measures in opening up narrow medieval markets and promoting commerce and industry, while also placing them under new control.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Trade and Diplomacy

Portuguese ships have been arriving frequently since the mid-16th century, and raw silk and silk fabrics from China and India were brought to Japan by Portuguese ships via Macau. They mainly arrived at Nagasaki, Hirado, and Kuchinotsu. The feudal lords of Kyushu, who were facing a period of trade vacuum due to the decline of the Wakou (Japanese pirates), showed great interest in this trade. However, since the trade of Portuguese ships was closely linked to the missionary activities of Christian missionaries, they generally adopted a favorable attitude toward Christianity in order to gain economic benefits from it, and some even converted to Christianity themselves. Nobunaga also protected Christianity as part of his policy toward temples, and Hideyoshi also initially treated missionaries well, and overseas trade became even more active during this period, but later he adopted a policy of banning Christianity and encouraging overseas trade. This was the 15th year of the Tensho Edict of 1587 (Tensho 15).

The following year, in 1588, Hideyoshi ordered the Shimazu clan of Satsuma (Kagoshima Prefecture) to encourage the visit of the Ryukyu king to Japan, and then sent sovereign letters to India, Luzon (the Philippines), Takayama (Taiwan), and other countries to encourage them to pay tribute. He also established the system of red seal ship trade, and gave red seals to wealthy merchants in Nagasaki, Sakai, and Kyoto to travel to the south. This showed Hideyoshi's intention to establish an overseas trade system, and Hideyoshi's direct control of Nagasaki, which had become a de facto missionary territory after expelling the missionaries, was also a measure to establish a system to monopolize the profits from overseas trade. In the same year, Hideyoshi exclusively purchased 90,000 kin of raw silk that had been loaded on a Portuguese ship in Nagasaki, ahead of Japanese merchants. This is considered to be a precursor to the itowappu trade that was later carried out under the isolationist system.

There were two large-scale invasions between 1592 (Bunroku 1) and 1598 (Keicho 3). Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea (the Bunroku-Keicho Invasions) was planned using the full force of the Toyotomi government, and involved widespread devastation in Korea, taking many Korean prisoners of war, and imposing an excessive military service burden on the people of Korea. There are many theories about the motives behind these invasions, but one theory is that they were due to the failure to realize hopes of resuming trade with Korea and China, and it cannot be denied that at least one of the objectives was to make profits from foreign trade.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Customs and Lifestyle

A new breath of life was felt in the manners and customs, and the prototypes of the Edo period could be seen in food, clothing and shelter. The suou (traditional Japanese kimono), which arose in the latter half of the Muromachi period and became the ceremonial attire of the samurai class, was further simplified during this period to become the kataginubakama (shoulder skirt) and haori (kimono coat) for commoners. During this period, kosode (shoulder sleeves) were worn equally by people of all social classes. Combined with the development of domestic cotton production, the import of large amounts of raw silk through trade with Nanban, and the development of dyeing techniques, the color sense of kosode as outerwear became significantly more diverse, the decorativeness of obi (sashes) increased, and in women's clothing, colorful uchikake (shoulder sleeves) with gorgeous patterns became the star. Nishijin-ori (textiles) and Tsujigahanazome (dyes) were developed in weaving and dyeing, respectively.

In terms of diet, it is particularly noteworthy that the traditional steamed rice was replaced by the popularization of the princess rice cooked in a pot or kettle, and there was also a shift from two meals a day (breakfast and dinner) to three meals a day. The staple food of the nobles and samurai classes was semi-white rice or black rice (brown rice), while townspeople and farmers ate wheat, millet, and barnyard millet only on special occasions, and also regularly ate rice with mixed vegetables, called "zassaimeshi," which was made by cooking miscellaneous grains with greens.

The separation of soldiers and farmers not only separated farmers from merchants and craftsmen, but also brought about a geographical separation between towns and rural areas.Of the samurai and townspeople who lived in towns, as can be seen in the Rakuchu Rakugaizu byobu (Scenes in and around Kyoto), most of their homes were single-story shophouses, and the majority were tenement houses with roofs made of shingles and supported by stones.However, with the development of the monetary economy, this would eventually make great progress.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

culture

After a long period of warring states and strife, unification was achieved rapidly, and overseas development also became prominent. A free and open spirit pervaded both the upper and lower classes, and a fresh and luxurious culture was born. The Buddhist influence that had had such a major influence on the culture up until that point was almost completely lost, replaced by a secular influence, and the influence of European culture first appeared, creating a culture that was more generous, bright, and dynamic than the previous era. Architecture and painting were the most representative of the culture of this era.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Architecture and painting

In architecture, castle and residential architecture developed primarily. Carving developed as an architectural decoration, and openwork and thin-walled carvings of flowers and birds on transoms, gable decorations, and wooden lintels became popular, making architecture more luxurious and grandiose. Castles were no longer simply military facilities; they symbolized the wealth and authority of feudal rulers, and magnificent castles with towers were constructed. The most famous castle buildings include Azuchi Castle (1576), built by Nobunaga, Osaka Castle (1583), built by Hideyoshi, Jurakudai (1585), and Fushimi (Momoyama) Castle (1594). None of these castles still exist, but what are said to be their remains remain in various places, giving us a glimpse of the grandeur of the past. Regarding Azuchi Castle, a new plan for the castle has been discovered, drawing attention for its unique shape and splendor. Also, Nishi Hongan-ji Temple's Hiunkaku and Daitoku-ji Temple's Karamon Gate are known as remnants of Jurakudai, while Nishi Hongan-ji Temple's Hakushoin and Karamon Gate are said to be remnants of Fushimi Castle.

In residential architecture, the Shoin-zukuri style, which had been around since the previous era, was developed and was adopted not only by the residences of samurai and noble families, but also by wealthy merchants and farmers, becoming the basic style of Japanese housing. In addition, with the development and spread of the tea ceremony, the Sukiya-zukuri style, which emphasizes simplicity and elegance as opposed to the luxurious Shoin-zukuri style, was created. Famous surviving teahouse architecture includes the Taian of Myoki-an, the Shonan-tei of Saiho-ji Temple, and the Shigure-tei of Kodai-ji Temple. Another noteworthy example of shrine architecture is the appearance of the Gongen-zukuri style, which combines the main hall and worship hall in a space called ai-ma. Osaki Hachiman in Sendai is a representative example, and this style became widespread and established as the architecture of the Toshogu Shrine during the Edo period.

The paintings were mainly architectural decorative paintings, and they best show the characteristics of the art of the time. Since the architecture of this era was grand and magnificent, the paintings that were to decorate it were naturally grand and magnificent. In addition to the traditional ink-wash paintings, kinpeki paintings, which were painted with thick mineral pigments on top of gold leaf on paper, were popular. This style is called damie, and suddenly appeared in this era. Master calligraphers such as Kano Eitoku, Kano Sanraku, and Kaiho Yusho appeared, and they left behind many works with themes of flowers, birds, and birds of prey in Jukoin Temple at Daitokuji, Nanzenji, Daikakuji, Tenkyuin Temple at Myoshinji, and other temples in Kyoto. Ink painting on sliding screens still had the echoes of the Song and Yuan paintings of the previous era, but also maintained a new style of its time, and Hasegawa Tohaku, Unkoku Togan, and Soga Chokuan were active in this period. In addition, what is called early genre painting developed, such as the Rakuchu Rakugaizu, which realistically depicted the state of Kyoto, Shokunin Zukushizu, which featured artisans, and Nanban Byobu, which depicted the customs of Westerners.

In the field of crafts, lacquerware and dyeing and weaving developed, and ceramics also flourished. The development of ceramics in particular was spurred by Korean potters brought back by generals on their way back from two military campaigns in Korea, and Karatsu ware was born. In addition, with the spread and development of the tea ceremony, Raku ware in Kyoto, Shino ware in Mino, Kiseto ware, and Shigaraki ware developed.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

Tea Ceremony and Performing Arts

Since the Sengoku period, the tea ceremony, which had been enjoyed by feudal lords and wealthy merchants, became popular due to the love of tea by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, and many tea masters came out of it, such as Tsuda Sokyu and Imai Sokyu, townspeople of Sakai, and Kamiya Sotan, townspeople of Hakata. In particular, Sen no Rikyu of Sakai elevated the traditional tea ceremony as a hobby to a life art, and established wabi-cha. Nohgaku also became more popular during this period, and joruri and Okuni Kabuki emerged as entertainment for the common people in the new era and were welcomed. Okuni's Kabuki dance incorporated dramatic elements into the dance and was accompanied by a new instrument, the shamisen, which gave it a new flavor, and became the origin of Edo Kabuki.

[Masanobu Hashimoto]

"History of the Oda Period" by Tanaka Yoshinari (1924, Meiji Shoin, reprinted by Kodansha Academic Library)" ▽ "History of the Toyotomi Period" by Tanaka Yoshinari (1925, Meiji Shoin, reprinted by Kodansha Academic Library)" ▽ "Illustrated Japanese Cultural History 8: The Azuchi-Momoyama Period" (1956, Shogakukan)" ▽ "History of Japan 15: The Oda-Toyotomi Government" by Fujiki Hisashi (1975, Shogakukan)

[References] | Azuchi -Momoyama period (Chronology) | Azuchi -Momoyama period (Chronology)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

時代区分

　織田信長(おだのぶなが)と豊臣秀吉(とよとみひでよし)とがそれぞれ政権を掌握した時代の名称。織豊(しょくほう)時代（織田豊臣時代）ともよばれる。安土時代の呼称は、信長が1576年（天正4）に美濃(みの)（岐阜県）岐阜城から近江(おうみ)（滋賀県）安土城に本拠を移して天下統一事業を推進したことにちなむが、桃山時代の呼称は、秀吉の晩年の居城である山城(やましろ)（京都府）伏見(ふしみ)の地がのちに桃山ともよばれるようになったことに基づくもので、秀吉当時における呼称ではない。かつ政治の中心は、1583年（天正11）より秀吉の死んだ1598年（慶長3）まで大坂城にあったのであるから、政権の根拠地という点からいえば、むしろ「大坂時代」とでもいうのが妥当であろうが、「桃山」には当代の華麗な文化を連想するにふさわしい語感もあって、まず文化史上で時代呼称として定着し、政治史上でも一般に用いられているのである。

　安土時代の時代区分は、信長が足利義昭(あしかがよしあき)を擁して岐阜より上洛(じょうらく)した1568年（永禄11）9月より、1582年（天正10）6月本能寺(ほんのうじ)の変まで、とするのが普通であるが、始期については、1573年（天正1）7月信長が将軍義昭を追放して名実ともに室町幕府を滅ぼしたとき、とする説もある。桃山時代はそれ以降、終期は秀吉が没した1598年（慶長3）8月、あるいは関ヶ原の戦いによって徳川氏の覇権が確立された1600年（慶長5）9月、とする説もあるが、ここでは1603年（慶長8）2月の江戸幕府開設を目安とする説に従う。わずかに30年余りの時代でありながら、安土桃山時代は、封建社会の発展にとってきわめて重要な時期であり、江戸時代の徳川幕府による近世封建制、幕藩体制の確立へと移行する転換期として、歴史上重要な意義をもっている。

［橋本政宣］

政治・社会

武力による統一

織田信長は尾張(おわり)（愛知県）の守護代織田氏の一族で、尾張の清洲(きよす)に居城を構え、豊かな濃尾(のうび)平野を地盤として勢力の伸長に努め、1560年（永禄3）東海一の大名今川義元(よしもと)を桶狭間(おけはざま)の一戦で討ってから急速に頭角を現し、1567年には美濃の斎藤龍興(たつおき)を下し、居城を井ノ口に移してここを岐阜と改めるとともに、僧沢彦(たくげん)に選ばせた「天下布武」の印章をつくって武力統一の抱負を示し、翌1568年には足利義昭(あしかがよしあき)を擁して上洛(じょうらく)し、義昭を将軍職につけ、自らその実権を握り、中央統一政権樹立の端緒を開いた。信長は多数の鉄砲隊を含む強大な武力を駆使して畿内(きない)を席巻(せっけん)し、比叡山延暦寺(ひえいざんえんりゃくじ)を討ち、近江(おうみ)の浅井氏、越前(えちぜん)（福井県）の朝倉氏を滅ぼし、ついで甲斐(かい)（山梨県）の武田氏を長篠(ながしの)の戦いに破り、畿内、東海、北陸地方の一向一揆(いっこういっき)と徹底的に戦ってこれを壊滅させ、その背後にある石山本願寺(いしやまほんがんじ)と対決し、1580年（天正8）ついに石山城（大阪府）を開城させ、長い本願寺との戦いに終止符を打った。1582年甲州征伐を行って武田氏を滅ぼし、ついで中国の毛利(もうり)氏を討つべく上洛し、京都四条の本能寺に宿泊中のところを、家臣の明智光秀(あけちみつひで)に襲われて自刃した。

　このとき秀吉は、信長の部将として備中(びっちゅう)（岡山県）に出陣中であったが、毛利氏と講和して急ぎ引き返し、山崎の戦いで光秀を討ち、信長の後継者としての第一歩を踏み出した。ついで秀吉は、競争者としてもっとも有力な柴田勝家(しばたかついえ)を賤ヶ岳(しずがたけ)の戦いで破り、後継者としての地位を不動のものにした。1584年（天正12）信長の遺子信雄(のぶかつ)を擁した東海の雄徳川家康と小牧(こまき)・長久手(ながくて)の戦いで対決し、政略をもってこれを服従させ、毛利氏も懐柔して中国を手中に収め、1585年長宗我部(ちょうそがべ)氏を、1587年島津氏を征伐して中国、九州と征服の手を広げ、1590年には相模(さがみ)（神奈川県）の北条氏を滅ぼして関東を制圧し、奥州の伊達(だて)氏を服従させ、ここに秀吉は天下統一事業を完成した。

［橋本政宣］

検地・刀狩

武力的な統一と並行して種々の政策が実施されたが、とくに重要なものは検地と刀狩である。検地はすでに戦国大名の間でも行われていたが、信長は京都入りと同時に検地に着手し、近江国に指出(さしだし)すなわち土地台帳の提出を命じたのをはじめ、征服地に次々と実施した。信長段階ではまだ役人を派遣し条目を設けて行うに至らず、秀吉も初めは指出方法をとったが、その後、征服が行われるとただちに奉行人(ぶぎょうにん)を派遣して検地を実施し、または検地実施を前提として知行地(ちぎょうち)の給付を行い、統一の進行と並行して全国的規模に拡大した。太閤(たいこう)検地がこれである。検地に反抗する者には徹底的に弾圧する方針がとられ、1590年（天正18）の奥州検地では、万一非協力者があれば城主でも1人残らず撫(な)で切りにし、百姓においては1郷(ごう)でも2郷でもことごとく撫で切りにし、山の奥や海も櫓櫂(ろかい)の続くまで入念に調査すべきことを命じ、その徹底を期している。太閤検地のもっとも整備された姿は1594年（文禄3）の検地条目にみることができる。太閤検地による石盛(こくもり)（反当り平均収穫率）、耕地ごとの年貢負担者の確定により、石高制が確定して全国の耕地面積、収穫高が確実に掌握できるようになり、また「一職(いっしき)」支配と「作合(さくあい)」否定、すなわち一地一作人の原則に基づいて中間搾取が否定されたことにより、小農民の自立が促された。検地帳に登録された百姓はその土地に緊縛(きんばく)され、移動することが禁じられた。

　一方、1588年（天正16）、秀吉は刀狩令を発布し、百姓がいっさいの武器を所持することを禁じ、農民の武装反抗を未然に防止し、農民の身分的固定化を図った。いわば検地と刀狩とは表裏一体のもので、武士と農民を明確に分離するための重要な施策であった。こうした封建的身分秩序は1591年8月の身分法令によっていっそう徹底された。この法令は3か条からなり、侍、中間(ちゅうげん)、小者などが新たに百姓、町人となること、百姓が田畠(たはた)を捨てて商業、賃仕事につくこと、出奔者を抱えることを禁止した。武士と百姓、町人の身分的な支配関係はこのときから固定的となるのである。

［橋本政宣］

経済

楽市・楽座の実施、関所の廃止

中世の荘園(しょうえん)的土地体制の衰退、太閤(たいこう)検地による荘園制の崩壊という過程のなかで、商人も荘園の狭い枠を脱して、領国経済から全国経済へとその活躍圏を拡大しつつあった。織豊政権は商品流通の拡大を図るため、中世の特権的、閉鎖的商工業組織である座を解体し、流通の阻害要因であった関所の撤廃を行い、新たな流通体系を整備する必要があった。すでに戦国大名は自己領国の経済的繁栄のために楽市(らくいち)・楽座(らくざ)を行っていたが、信長は1568年（永禄11）岐阜の城下である加納(かのう)の町において、ついで1577年（天正5）安土の城下町において楽市・楽座を実施した。ことに安土における掟(おきて)は13か条からなり、座の特権を否定し、諸種の課税を免除して商人の来住を勧め、治安の維持を約したもので、その後の諸大名の城下町における掟の規範となった。

　また各所に乱立する関所、不十分な交通路、無秩序に流通している貨幣、これらも商品経済の発達に対して大きな障害となっていたので、信長は1569年（永禄12）その支配圏内にある国々の関所を廃止し、その勢力拡大とともに関所を撤廃し、また交通路については1574年（天正2）信長の管内に属する道路の幅を広げるなどその整備に努めた。そしてこの関所の撤廃、道路の改修などは秀吉によって全国的に推し進められ、全国の都市と商業を活気づけた。これはさらに諸産業の発達を促進したが、なかでも注目すべきは鉱山業の隆盛がみられたことである。石見(いわみ)銀山、佐渡金山をはじめとして、各地の鉱山では採掘技術の進歩により産出額が飛躍的に増大し、また新鉱山の発見が各地でみられたのも、この時代に入ってからのことである。

［橋本政宣］

貨幣経済の発達

商業の発展と金銀採掘の増大は、必然的に金・銀貨の鋳造、流通を促した。当時、明(みん)（中国）から輸入された良質の貨幣と並んで民間の私鋳銭や欠損・焼損銭などの悪銭が流通し、貨幣の受け渡しに混乱を生ずるもととなっていたので、信長は1569年（永禄12）撰銭(えりぜに)令を出して良銭と悪銭との交換比率を定め、流通の円滑化を図った。しかし信長の時代にはまだ新しい貨幣の鋳造をみなかったが、秀吉は金・銀貨の鋳造を行い、ここに貨幣の統一がなされた。なかでも1588年（天正16）の天正(てんしょう)大判・小判は、贈答用のものではあったがきわめて良質の金貨であった。

［橋本政宣］

新たな経済統制

これら信長、秀吉による関所の撤廃、交通路の整備、貨幣の統一という一連の政策により、全国的市場形成への方向が著しく促進されたが、商品経済の自由な発達は、一面では、石高制に基づく統一的封建的知行体系を動揺させるものでもあったから、信長や秀吉は商業の自由な発達を抑制し、商人を自己の統制下に置かんとする政策を並行してとった。信長が足利義昭(あしかがよしあき)を擁して上洛(じょうらく)したとき、義昭よりその勲功の賞として摂津（大阪府・兵庫県）、和泉(いずみ)（大阪府）、近江などの諸国において領地を加増しようという申し出があったのを辞退し、そのかわりに、和泉の堺(さかい)と近江の大津、草津に代官を置くことを望んだこと、また秀吉が堺、博多(はかた)、長崎、大津などを直轄領としたことは、これら主要商業都市をその統制下に置くためであった。

　信長の楽市楽座令にしても、これを、社寺、公家(くげ)など古代権力から商工業者を解放し、封建領主直属の仲間の結成へと推進した進歩的政策であるとする見方が一般的であったが、最近では、織田政権の新しい領国支配のための城下町集住政策であり、城下町以外については座特権を認めていた事実も知られるようになり、また関所にしても全廃したのではなく、京都七口(ななくち)にある皇室領の関所は存続を認めていたことも明らかにされている。要するに信長、秀吉の座政策に代表される一連の経済政策も、狭隘(きょうあい)な中世市場を解放し商工業を促進するとともに、これを新たな統制下に置くうえでの枢要な施策であったといえよう。

［橋本政宣］

貿易・外交

　16世紀中葉以来ポルトガル船の来航が盛んで、マカオ経由のポルトガル船により中国やインド産の生糸、絹織物などがわが国にもたらされた。主として長崎、あるいは平戸(ひらど)や口之津(くちのつ)に入港した。倭寇(わこう)勢力の衰微によって日中貿易の空白期に直面していた九州の諸大名はこれに大きな関心を示したが、ポルトガル船の貿易はキリスト教宣教師の布教活動と密接に結び付いていたので、その経済的利益を図るため、一般的に布教に対しても好意的な態度をとり、自らキリシタンに改宗する者もあった。信長も対寺院政策の一環としてキリスト教を保護し、秀吉も初めは宣教師を好遇し、またこの時代に海外貿易は一段と盛んになったが、その後キリスト教は禁止し、海外貿易は奨励するという政策をとる。1587年（天正15）の宣教師追放令がこれである。

　秀吉は翌1588年薩摩(さつま)（鹿児島県）の島津氏に命じ琉球(りゅうきゅう)王の来朝を促したのをはじめとし、インド、呂宋(ルソン)（フィリピン）、高山(こうざん)国（台湾）などに国書を送って入貢を促すとともに、朱印船貿易の制を始め、長崎、堺、京都の豪商に南方への渡海朱印状を与えた。これは秀吉による海外貿易体制の意図を表したものであり、秀吉が宣教師追放とともに、事実上の宣教師領となっていた長崎を直轄領としたのも、海外貿易の利益を独占する体制を確立するための一施策であったというべきである。同年秀吉が、ポルトガル船が長崎に積載してきた生糸9万斤(きん)を日本人商人に先駆けて独占的に購入したのは、のちに鎖国体制下で行われた糸割符(いとわっぷ)貿易の先駆的形態とみなされている。

　1592年（文禄1）から1598年（慶長3）にかけて二度にわたって大規模な侵略が行われた。秀吉の朝鮮出兵（文禄(ぶんろく)・慶長(けいちょう)の役）は豊臣(とよとみ)政権の総力を投入して企てられたもので、朝鮮を広範囲にわたって荒し、多数の朝鮮人捕虜を連行し、また国内には過大な軍役の負担を強いるものであった。その動機については諸説があって一定しないが、朝鮮、中国との貿易再開の希望がいれられなかったためともいわれ、少なくとも外国貿易による利潤獲得が一つの目的にあったことは否めないであろう。

［橋本政宣］

風俗・生活

　風俗にも新しい息吹が感じられ、衣食住にも江戸時代の原型をみることができる。室町時代後半期に発生し武家の礼装となった素襖(すおう)が、この時代にさらに簡略化されて肩衣袴(かたぎぬばかま)となり、また庶民には羽織(はおり)が用いられるようになる。この時代、身分の上下なく等しく一般に用いられたのは小袖(こそで)であった。木綿の国内生産の発達、南蛮貿易による大量の生糸の輸入、あるいは染色技術の発達と相まって、表着としての小袖の色彩感覚は著しく多様性をおび、帯の装飾性を増加させ、女装では華麗な文様の色鮮やかな打掛(うちかけ)という小袖が花形であった。織物では西陣織(にしじんおり)、染物では辻が花染(つじがはなぞめ)の発達をみた。

　食生活でとくに注目されるのは、従来の蒸してつくる強米(こわめし)から鍋(なべ)や釜(かま)で炊く姫飯(ひめいい)が普及し、また朝夕2食から3食制への変化もみられるようになった。公家(くげ)、武士階級の主食は半白米または黒米（玄米）で、町人、農民は、米は特別のときで、麦、粟(あわ)、稗(ひえ)を主として食し、また雑菜飯(ざっさいめし)といって雑穀類に菜を炊き込んだものを常用とした。

　兵農分離は農民と商人、職人をも分離すると同時に、町と農村との地域的分離をももたらし、町に住む武士や町人のうち、町人の住居は『洛中洛外図屏風(らくちゅうらくがいずびょうぶ)』などにみられるように、ほとんど平屋建ての店舗住宅で、大部分は長屋であり、屋根は押さえ石を置く板葺(いたぶ)きであったが、貨幣経済の発達に伴い、やがて大きな進展を遂げていくのである。

［橋本政宣］

文化

　長い間の戦国争乱の状態から急速に統一が達成され、また海外発展も著しくなるなかで、上下ともに自由闊達(かったつ)な気風がみなぎり、新鮮で豪華な文化が生まれた。これまでの文化に多大な影響を与えてきた仏教的な色彩がほとんど影を潜め、これにかわって世俗的色彩が濃くなり、ヨーロッパ文化の影響が初めて現れ、前代と比較しておおらかで明るい躍動的な文化が創造された。建築と絵画はこの時代の文化のもっとも代表的なものであった。

［橋本政宣］

建築と絵画

建築は城郭建築と住宅建築が主として発達した。彫刻は建築の装飾としての発達を遂げ、欄間(らんま)や破風(はふ)飾りや木鼻(きばな)などに花鳥などを透彫(すかしぼ)り、薄肉彫りにすることが盛んに行われ、建築をより豪華、雄大なものとした。城郭は単に軍事的施設というにとどまらず、封建支配者の富と権威を象徴するものとして、天守閣をもつ壮大な城郭が営まれた。城郭建築のもっとも有名なものに、信長が築いた安土城（1576）、秀吉築城になる大坂城（1583）、聚楽第(じゅらくだい)（1585）、伏見(ふしみ)（桃山）城（1594）などがある。これらはいずれも現存しないが、その遺構といわれるものが諸所に残っていて、昔日の盛大なありさまをしのぶことができる。安土城については新たにその指図(さしず)といわれるものが発見され、その特殊な形態と豪華さが注目されている。また聚楽第の遺構としては西本願寺飛雲閣(ひうんかく)、大徳寺唐門が知られ、西本願寺白書院・唐門などは伏見城の遺構といわれる。

　住宅建築としては、前代以来の書院造が発達し、武家や公家の邸宅ばかりでなく、のちには豪商や豪農の間にも取り入れられて、日本住宅の基本型となった。また茶道の発達、普及に伴って、豪華な書院造に対して簡素清雅を旨とする数寄屋(すきや)造が創成された。現存の茶室建築としては妙喜庵(みょうきあん)の待庵(たいあん)、西芳(さいほう)寺の湘南亭(しょうなんてい)、高台(こうだい)寺の時雨(しぐれ)亭などが有名である。そのほか神社建築として、本殿と拝殿とを合の間で結合した権現(ごんげん)造が出現していることも注目される。仙台の大崎八幡(はちまん)がその代表的なもので、この様式は江戸時代に東照宮(とうしょうぐう)建築として普及定着する。

　絵画は建築装飾画である障壁画(しょうへきが)が中心であり、もっともよく当代美術の特色を示している。この時代の建築が雄大、壮麗なものであったから、これを装飾すべき絵画もおのずから豪壮にして華麗なものとなり、これまでの水墨障壁画のほかに、紙面に金箔(きんぱく)を張り、その上に濃厚な岩絵の具をもって描く金碧(きんぺき)障壁画が盛んに行われた。これは濃絵(だみえ)といわれるもので、当代に突如として興ったものである。狩野永徳(かのうえいとく)、狩野山楽(さんらく)、海北友松(かいほうゆうしょう)のごとき名筆が現れ、大徳寺聚光院(じゅこういん)、南禅寺、大覚寺、妙心寺天球院、そのほか京都の寺院などに、花鳥や猛禽(もうきん)などを画題とした多くの作品を遺(のこ)している。水墨障壁画は前代以来の宋元(そうげん)画の余韻を伝えてはいるが、しかも当代の新しい風格を保っており、長谷川等伯(はせがわとうはく)、雲谷等顔(うんこくとうがん)、曾我直庵(そがちょくあん)らが活躍した。また、京都のありさまを写実的に描いた洛中洛外図、職人を題材とした職人尽図(しょくにんづくしず)、西欧人の風俗を描いた南蛮屏風(なんばんびょうぶ)など、初期風俗画とよばれるものが発達した。

　工芸の分野では蒔絵(まきえ)、染織などが発達したほか、陶磁器も盛んになった。ことに陶器は二度にわたる朝鮮出兵の帰途に諸将が連れ帰った朝鮮人陶工によって発達が促され、唐津(からつ)焼などが興った。また茶の湯の普及発達に伴って、京都の楽焼(らくやき)や美濃(みの)の志野(しの)、黄瀬戸(きせと)、あるいは信楽(しがらき)焼などが発達した。

［橋本政宣］

茶の湯・芸能

戦国時代以来、大名や豪商に喜ばれた茶の湯は、信長や秀吉がこれを愛好したことによって普及し、堺(さかい)町人の津田宗及(そうきゅう)、今井宗久(そうきゅう)、博多(はかた)町人の神谷宗湛(かみやそうたん)ら多くの茶人を輩出した。ことに堺の千利休(せんのりきゅう)は従来の趣味的な茶の湯を生活芸術としての茶道に高めて佗茶(わびちゃ)を確立した。能楽もこの時代に一段と普及し、また新しい時代の庶民の楽しみとして浄瑠璃(じょうるり)と阿国歌舞伎(おくにかぶき)が発生して迎えられた。阿国の歌舞伎踊りは舞踊に劇的要素を取り入れ、新しい楽器である三味線(しゃみせん)を伴奏としたところに新味があり、江戸歌舞伎の源流となった。

［橋本政宣］

『田中義成著『織田時代史』（1924・明治書院、復刻・講談社学術文庫）』▽『田中義成著『豊臣時代史』（1925・明治書院、復刻・講談社学術文庫）』▽『『図説日本文化史大系 8　安土桃山時代』（1956・小学館）』▽『藤木久志著『日本の歴史 15　織田・豊臣政権』（1975・小学館）』

[参照項目] | 織豊政権 | 文禄・慶長の役 | 桃山美術[年表] | 安土桃山時代（年表）

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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