Degree - degree

Japanese: 学位 - がくい

A degree is a title given by a university or other highly specialized educational and research institution to a person who has completed a certain educational course and passed an examination, or to a person who has conducted academically valuable research and published a paper or book or completed a research project, or to a person who has made a notable academic and educational achievement. Exceptionally, a degree may be awarded directly by the state, which is the accrediting body. Based on this definition, there are three types of degrees: earned degrees (in Japan, course doctorates, masters, and bachelors), research degrees (thesis doctorates), and honorary degrees. In addition to doctorates, masters, and bachelors degrees, some countries also award associate degrees and various intermediate degrees. In a broad sense, research degrees can be included in earned degrees.

[Tadashi Kaneko and Akira Tate]

History

Some say that the origin of the academic degree system dates back to the 9th century, when academic degrees called ijazah were awarded by individual teachers on a specific topic, mainly in Islamic countries, but the generally accepted view is that it dates back to the formation of medieval universities in Europe. The origin of universities is the Studium Generale, which arose in the 12th century as a result of the study of classical studies in monasteries and temple schools. Both the University of Bologna, a student union, and the University of Paris, a teacher union, received royal charters from the Pope and the Emperor and had the right to award jus ubique docendi, or "universal teaching qualification," which was valid throughout the Christian world, that is, the privilege of granting a degree or license to those qualified to teach. Thus, an academic degree guaranteed the inceptio of joining the teacher union and a teaching license. Teachers who held this degree were called by the titles equivalent to modern English terms master, doctor, and professor, and were used as synonyms. When a student under the supervision of a doctor reached a certain level, he or she received permission from the head of the school (lector) to give special lectures, and after passing certain exams, became a bachelor. Those who passed further individual exams and were allowed to proceed to the public exams were called by the title of licence, which is the modern French term, and became one of the qualifications to become a doctor. Thus, by the end of the 13th century, the system of bachelor (bachelor), licence, master, and doctorate degrees was established.

It is extremely difficult to trace the origin of Japanese academic degrees directly back to before the modern era. Although they are all called universities, the concept of university differs from the Western-style universities that were officially called universities after the Meiji era and have become established as the concept of university today, to the concepts of universities that originated from the ancient Daigakuryo, whose origins can be traced back to ancient Chinese universities, and to the Shoheikou in the Edo period. Certainly, they have something in common in the sense that they are the highest academic educational institutions, but their origins, meanings, and essences are different. In other words, the Daigakuryo, which imitated the Guozijian system (established in 276 by Emperor Wu of Jin) by fully importing the Tang Dynasty's legal code system, was a training institution for officials based on Confucianism and had the character of a government agency. The titles of instructors include the word "Hakase," but this indicates their status as an official position and does not have the character of an academic degree. From then on, it seems that there was no development of a degree system in the European sense until the establishment of the degree system in the Meiji period.

[Tadashi Kaneko and Akira Tate]

Old degree system

The origin of the old degree system was the five-level bachelor's degree title stipulated in the Education System enacted in 1872 (Meiji 5), and the three-level titles for national school teachers, Doctor of Philosophy, Bachelor's Degree, and Doctor of Philosophy, which were revised the following year in 1873. In 1878, the Ministry of Education issued a notice granting the right to award degrees to the University of Tokyo, and retroactively to the 1877 graduates, 92 students from the three faculties of Law, Science, and Medicine were awarded bachelor's degrees as their first degree. Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Philosophy were also considered degrees, but they were not applied. In the Degree Order of 1887, Doctor of Philosophy and Great Doctor were made into the second level, Bachelor's Degree became a non-degree title, and Doctor of Philosophy was abolished. However, according to the international definition, the subsequent bachelor's degree can also be called a "degree." Doctoral degrees were awarded to those who had entered graduate school and passed the regular examination, or to those with equal or higher academic ability, through a resolution of the Imperial University Council, while Grand Doctoral Degrees were awarded to those selected from among the doctoral students and who had made a particularly distinguished academic achievement through a Cabinet decision. The Minister of Education had the authority to award both degrees. The Grand Doctoral Degree was not used until it was abolished in 1898 with the revision of the Degree Order. The University Order of 1918 (Taisho 7) recognized not only national universities, but also public and private universities. The Degree Order of 1920 further handed the right to award degrees to each university, provided that each university should determine the type of doctoral degree and the examination procedure, and required the adoption of a broad interpretation of thesis and the printing and publication of thesis within a certain period of time. This Degree Order was applied in parallel with the new degree regulations under the School Education Law until March 1962 (Showa 37), when the old system of university graduate schools continued to exist.

In this way, the modern doctorate (hakushi) was created based on the Western doctorate degree, but because the name used the term hakase (kase) from the Ritsuryo system, it gave rise to the idea that it was an honorary title for a great scholar, as symbolized by the saying "One will eventually become either a doctor or a minister," and this created the confusion in the degree system that persists to this day.

[Tadashi Kaneko and Akira Tate]

Current Degree System

After the Second World War, the educational reform led to the establishment of new universities and a change in the degree system. The framework for the new degree system was laid out by the School Education Act and Graduate School Standards enacted in 1947, and the Degree Regulations of 1953, and the current system was further shaped by the enactment of the Graduate School Establishment Standards in 1974. Under the old system, all universities were required to establish graduate schools, but under the new system, universities are allowed to be established without graduate schools, and the Graduate School Establishment Standards stipulate that graduate schools must have either a master's course or a doctoral course, or both. The master's course lasts for two years, and is intended to provide in-depth academic knowledge from a broad perspective, and to cultivate the advanced abilities required for research in a major field or for a profession requiring a high level of expertise. The requirements for completing a master's course are to be enrolled for at least two years, to have acquired at least 30 credits, to have passed the examination and review of a master's thesis conducted by the graduate school, or to have achieved outstanding research achievements, and a master's degree is awarded to those who have completed the course. The standard period for completing a doctoral course is five years, and the purpose is to cultivate the research ability and rich academic knowledge necessary to conduct independent research activities as a researcher in one's field of specialization or to engage in other advanced and specialized work. Doctoral courses can be divided into a two-year course in the first half and a three-year course in the second half, or they can be a five-year course without this division. The requirements for completing a doctoral course are to be enrolled for at least five years, to have acquired at least 30 credits, to have passed the examination and review of a doctoral thesis conducted by the graduate school, or to have achieved outstanding research achievements, and a doctoral degree is awarded to those who have completed the course. In addition, a master's degree is awarded to those who have completed the first two years of a five-year doctoral program and met the requirements for completing a master's program, and a doctorate (thesis doctorate) is awarded to those who have the same or higher academic ability as those who have completed a doctoral program and who pass the doctoral thesis examination conducted by the graduate school. The degree regulations also require universities to publish a summary of the contents of the doctoral thesis and a summary of the results of the thesis examination within three months of the awarding of the doctoral degree, and require recipients to print and publish the thesis or a summary of its contents within one year of obtaining the doctoral degree.

Based on the proposals for various developments in higher education institutions contained in the second report of the Provisional Council for Education (Rinkyo-in) in 1986, the University Council subsequently held detailed deliberations on these issues, and in February 1991 issued its final reports on "Improving University Education" and "Establishing Degree Awarding Institutions." In the same year, the National School Establishment Act and the School Education Act were partially amended to make the title of bachelor a degree, to base dissertation doctorates on law, to award associate degrees to junior college and technical college graduates, and to add the National Institution for Academic Degrees to the list of degree awarders. As a result, the National Institution for Academic Degrees was launched in July of the same year, and was responsible for reviewing the awarding of degrees to junior college and technical college graduates who had further studied as university course students, as well as those who had completed university-accredited courses by various ministries and agencies.

[Tadashi Kaneko and Akira Tate]

In April 2000, the National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation was established to evaluate educational institutions in addition to granting degrees, and it was reorganized as the National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation. In April 2004, it became an independent administrative institution. In April 2016, it was merged with the National University Finance and Management Center to become the National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Reform Support, with the aim of integrating university education and research activities with support for management reform.

[Editorial Department, July 19, 2017]

Degree systems in each country

America

There are basic types of degrees, such as an Associate's degree from a two-year junior college, a Bachelor's degree from a four-year college, a Master's degree (Master, MA, MS, MBA, etc.) from one year or more of graduate school, a Doctorate (Doctor, Ph.D., etc.) from three years or more of graduate school, and a first professional degree (Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Law, etc.) from six years or more including undergraduate school. There are also various intermediate degrees such as Specialist and Engineer. Degree examination and awarding organizations are individual universities, and in recent years, university consortia have been added. In the United States, the concept of a degree plays an important social function not simply as a title for researchers, but as a title indicating the advanced professional skills cultivated at higher education institutions.

[Tadashi Kaneko and Akira Tate]

England

There are three or four year bachelor's degrees (ordinary and honors), one year master's, three or more years doctorate, and higher doctorates awarded by examination of a book or thesis. In addition to universities, the Council for National Academic Degrees (CNAA) was also an institution that certified the degrees of graduates of polytechnics, colleges of education, and colleges of further education, but this was abolished when polytechnics were elevated to universities in 1993.

[Tadashi Kaneko and Akira Tate]

France

In addition to universities, degrees are awarded at the Grandes Écoles. At universities, the Diplôme (General University Diploma) is awarded to those who complete the first stage, which takes two years after enrollment, followed by the Licence (Licence) after at least one year of study in the second stage, and the Maîtrise (Métrise) which can be obtained one year or more after obtaining the Licence, which are considered to correspond to an associate degree, a bachelor's degree, and a master's degree, respectively. In the third stage, which is higher than this, there is the Diplôme d'Etude Approfondie (Diplôme d'Etude Approfondie), which can be obtained in one year in principle. A doctorate is awarded to those who submit a thesis and pass an oral examination three to five years after obtaining this diploma. In addition, the Grandes Écoles mainly award the Ingénieur, which is the English equivalent of an engineer.

[Tadashi Kaneko and Akira Tate]

Germany

University degrees include Diplom, Magister, and Doktor. In certain professional fields, such as doctor and teacher, students graduate by passing the state exam Staatsexamen, but in other fields, they receive a Diploma or Master's degree awarded by the university. Both are equivalent degrees that require more than four years to obtain, and historically the former was used in engineering and the latter in humanities, but today there is no significant difference between them. There is an even higher degree, a PhD, but to take the doctoral exam, students must study in the relevant field for four to five years, be enrolled at a relevant institution for about one year, and complete a doctoral thesis, which usually takes three years to complete.

[Tadashi Kaneko and Akira Tate]

"The Origin of Universities, by H. Rushdall, translated by Yokoo Soei (1968, Toyokan Publishing)" ▽ "Reprint of "Japanese Universities," by Okubo Toshiaki (1981, Japan Library Center)" ▽ "International Comparison of Educational Indicators, Research and Statistics Division, Minister's Secretariat, Ministry of Education (1981 edition)" ▽ "The Encyclopedia of Higher Education, by B. Clark & G. Neave (1992, Pergamon Press, UK.US.KOREA.JAPAN)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一定の教育課程を履修し試験に合格することによって学業を修めた者、または、学術上価値のある研究を行い論文や著書の公刊もしくは研究プロジェクトを完成した者、あるいは学術上および教育上顕著な功績ある者に、大学あるいは高度な専門教育研究機関によって与えられる称号である。例外的に、その認可機関である国家が直接に授与することもある。この定義から、学位には、修得学位earned degree（わが国の課程博士(はくし)、修士、学士）、研究学位（論文博士）、名誉学位の3種類が区分され、博士、修士、学士の学位のほか、国によって准学士や各種の中間学位などが授与される。広義には、研究学位は修得学位に含めることができる。

［金子忠史・舘　昭］

沿革

学位制度（アカデミック・デグリーacademic degree）の起源は、9世紀に早くも、イスラム教圏を中心にイヤザijazahと称する学位が、テーマ別に師匠によって個別的に授与されたことに由来すると指摘する説もあるが、定説は、ヨーロッパの中世大学の形成期にあるとされる。12世紀に修道院や本山学校における古典学の研究が起因となって発生したストゥディウム・ゲネラーレstudium generaleが、大学の淵源(えんげん)で、学生組合のボローニャ大学も、教師組合のパリ大学も、ともに教皇や皇帝から勅許を得て、キリスト教世界全体に通用する「万国教授資格」jus ubique docendiの授与権、すなわち、学位または免許licentiaを教授資格者に与える特権を有していた。したがって学位は、教師組合への加入inceptioと教授免許を保証するものであった。この学位を有する教師は、現代英語表記ではマスターmaster、ドクターdoctor、およびプロフェッサーprofessorにあたる称号でよばれ、同義語に用いられた。ドクターの指導下にある学生が、一定の段階に達すると、学頭（レクトール）から、「講読許可」を得て特殊講義を担当し、一定の試験に合格してのちバチェラーbachelorとなった。さらに個人試験に合格し、公開試験に進むことを認められた者は、現代フランス語表記ではリサンスlicenceにあたる称号でよばれ、ドクターとなるための一つの資格となった。かくして13世紀末までにバチェラー（学士）、リサンス（許士）、マスター（修士）あるいはドクター（博士）の学位の体系が確立した。

　日本の学位の起源を、直接的に近代以前に求めることはきわめて困難である。同じ大学といっても、明治以降の欧米風のユニバーシティuniversityを大学と公称して、今日の大学の概念に定着したものと、それ以前の中国古代の大学にその源流が求められる上代の大学寮を起点とする大学の概念や、江戸時代の昌平黌(しょうへいこう)などと趣(おもむき)を異にする。確かに、最高の学術的な教育機関という意味では相通ずるものがあるが、その起源や意義および本質は異なる。すなわち、唐の律令(りつれい／りつりょう)制度の全面的な移入という形で、国子監の制度（晋(しん)の武帝276年設立）を模倣した大学寮は、儒教主義を基調とする官吏養成機関であり、かつ官庁としての性格をもっていた。教官の名称に博士(はかせ)のことばがみられるが、これは官職としての地位を示し、学位の性格をもつものではなかった。以後、明治の学位制度確立まで、ヨーロッパ的な意味での学位制度の発達はみられなかったと考えられる。

［金子忠史・舘　昭］

旧制学位制度

まず旧制学位制度の端緒となったのは、1872年（明治5）制定の「学制」に規定された5段階の学士の称号および翌1873年改定の博士(はくし)、学士、得業士の三等の官立学校教員の称号である。1878年に文部省より東京大学に学位授与の権を与える旨の通達があり、1877年の卒業生にさかのぼって、法・理・医の3学部の学生92名に最初の学位として学士号が授与された。得業士、博士も学位とされたが、適用されなかった。1887年の学位令によって、博士および大博士の二等とし、学士は学位外称号となり、得業士は廃止された。もっとも国際的な定義からすれば、この後の学士も「学位」ということができる。博士は、大学院に入って定期の試験を受けた者、またはこれと同等以上の学力ある者に、帝国大学評議会の議を経て授けられ、大博士は、博士のなかから選考して学問上とくに功績ある者に閣議を経て授けられるものとし、いずれも授与権者は文部大臣であった。1898年の学位令改正で廃止されるまで、大博士は適用されることはなかった。1918年（大正7）の大学令では、官立のほか公立および私立の大学が認められた。さらに1920年の学位令によって学位授与権は各大学にゆだねられ、博士の学位の種類や審査手続は各大学で定めることとし、学位論文の広義の解釈の採択と論文の一定期間内の印刷公刊を義務づけた。この学位令は、旧制大学研究科の存続した1962年（昭和37）3月まで、学校教育法による新制学位規則と並行して適用された。

　このように、近代の博士(はくし)は欧米のドクター学位を模してつくられたが、その名称に律令制からくる博士(はかせ)の名称を用いたことから、「末は博士か大臣か」ということばに象徴されるように、碩学(せきがく)泰斗の名誉的な称号という意識が生まれ、今日に至る学位制度混乱の原因をつくった。

［金子忠史・舘　昭］

現行の学位制度

第二次世界大戦後、学制改革による新制大学が発足し、学位制度も変わった。1947年（昭和22）制定の学校教育法、大学院基準、1953年の学位規則によって、新学位制度の骨格が与えられ、さらに1974年の大学院設置基準の制定などによって現行制度は形づくられてきた。旧制度では、大学院（研究科）の設置が全大学に必置であったのに対し、新制度では大学院を置かない大学の設置が認められ、大学院設置基準によると、大学院には修士課程および博士課程を併せ置くか、またはそのいずれかを置くものとした。修士課程は修業年限を2年とし、広い視野にたって精深な学識を授け、専攻分野における研究能力または高度の専門性を要する職業などに必要な高度の能力を養うことを目的としている。修士課程の修了要件は、2年以上の在学、30単位以上の修得、当該大学院の行う修士論文の審査および試験の合格、または優れた研究業績をあげた者は1年以上の在学で足りるとし、修了した者に修士の学位が授与される。博士課程の標準修業年限は5年とし、専攻分野について研究者として自立して研究活動を行い、またはその他の高度かつ専門的な業務に従事するに必要な研究能力およびその基礎となる豊かな学識を養うことを目的としている。博士課程は、前期2年および後期3年の課程に区分するものと、この区分を設けない5年一貫制とすることもできるとした。博士課程修了要件は、5年以上の在学、30単位以上の修得、当該大学院の行う博士論文の審査および試験に合格、または優れた研究業績をあげた者は3年以上の在学で足りるとし、修了した者に博士の学位が授与される。このほかに、5年制博士課程の前期2年修了者で、修士課程の修了要件を満たした者に修士号が、また、博士課程を修了した者と同等以上の学力を有し、大学院の行う博士論文審査に合格した者に博士号（論文博士）が授与される。学位規則はさらに、博士の学位授与後3か月以内に、その論文の内容の要旨および論文審査の結果の要旨の公表の義務を大学に、また博士号取得後1か年以内に、その論文の、またはその内容要約の印刷公表義務を取得者に課している。

　臨時教育審議会（臨教審）の1986年の第二次答申に盛られた、高等教育機関の多様な発展の提案が基礎となって、以後大学審議会は、これらについて具体的な審議を重ね、1991年（平成3）2月に「大学教育の改善について」および「学位授与機関の創設について」の最終答申を行った。同年には国立学校設置法および学校教育法の一部が改正され、学士の称号を学位とすること、論文博士の根拠を法律に置くこと、短期大学および高等専門学校卒業者に準学士号を授与することなどとともに、学位の授与権者に学位授与機構が加えられた。これにより、同年7月には学位授与機構が発足し、短期大学、高等専門学校の卒業生などでさらに大学の科目等履修生として学修を積んだ者、および各省庁の大学校認定課程修了者に対して、学位授与の審査を行った。

［金子忠史・舘　昭］

　2000年（平成12）4月、学位授与機構は学位授与に加えて教育機関評価の業務も行うこととなり、大学評価・学位授与機構へと改組。2004年4月には独立行政法人化された。さらに2016年4月、大学の教育・研究活動と経営改革支援とを一体的に行うことを目的として国立大学財務・経営センターと統合し、大学改革支援・学位授与機構となった。

［編集部　2017年7月19日］

各国の学位制度

アメリカ

学位には、二年制短期大学卒の準学士（Associate）、四年制大学の学士（Bachelor）、大学院1年以上の修士（Master; M.A.; M.S.; M.B.Aなど）、同3年以上の博士（Doctor; Ph.D.など）、学部とあわせて6年以上の第一専門職学位（Doctor of Medicine; Doctor of Lawなど）の基礎的な種別のもとにスペシャリストSpecialistやエンジニアEngineerなどの各種の中間学位がある。学位審査・授与機関は、各大学、および近年は大学の連合体が加わっている。アメリカでは、学位の概念は、単に研究者の称号としてではなく、高等教育機関で養われる高度な職業能力を表す称号として、重要な社会的機能を担っている。

［金子忠史・舘　昭］

イギリス

学位には、3、4年の大学の学士（普通と優等の2種）、大学院1年の修士、大学院3年以上の博士、および著作・論文の審査で授与される上級博士Higher Doctoratesがある。学位授与機関は各大学以外に全国学位評議会（CNAA）がありポリテクニック、教育カレッジ、継続教育カレッジの卒業生の学位認定を行っていたが、1993年にポリテクニックが大学に昇格したのを機に廃止された。

［金子忠史・舘　昭］

フランス

大学のほか、グランゼコールで学位が授与される。大学では、入学後2年の第1期課程修了者に大学一般教育修了ディプロムDiplôme、それに続く第2期課程最低1年での許士（リサンスLicence）が授与され、許士取得後1年以上で取得できる修士（メトリーズMaîtrise）があり、それぞれ準学士、学士、修士に該当すると考えられる。これより上の第3期課程では、まず研究深化ディプロムDiplôme d'Etude Approfondieがあり、原則として1年で取得できる。博士号は、このディプロムの取得後、3～5年で論文を提出して、口頭試問に合格した者に授与される。また、グランゼコールでは、おもに英語のエンジニアにあたるアンジェニウールIngénieurが授与される。

［金子忠史・舘　昭］

ドイツ

大学の学位には、得業士Diplom、修士Magister、博士Doktorがある。大学生は、医師、教師などの特定の専門職分野では州試験Staatsexamenの合格が卒業になるが、ほかの分野では大学の授与する得業士または修士の学位を得る。両者はともにその取得に4年以上を要する同レベルの学位であり、歴史的には前者が工学、後者が人文学で用いられたが、現在で大きな違いはなくなっている。さらに上級の学位に博士があるが、博士試験を受験するには4～5年の該当分野での学習と、1年程度の該当機関での在籍を課され、通常はその完成に3年を要する博士論文を完成していなければならない。

［金子忠史・舘　昭］

『H・ラシュドール著、横尾壮英訳『大学の起源』（1968・東洋館出版社）』▽『大久保利謙著『日本の大学』復刻版（1981・日本図書センター）』▽『文部省大臣官房調査統計課『教育指標の国際比較』（1981年版）』▽『B.Clark & G.NeaveThe Encyclopedia of Higher Education（1992, Pergamon Press, UK.USA.KOREA.JAPAN）』

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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