Sea ice

Japanese: 海氷 - かいひょう
Sea ice

This refers to all ice that forms in the sea. Ice that forms in lakes is called lake ice, ice that forms in rivers is called river ice, and ice that forms on land such as glaciers is called land ice. Among these, ice that floats on the water is collectively called floating ice.

[Masaomi Akagawa]

Salinity and freezing temperature

Fresh water freezes at 0°C, but seawater freezes at a lower temperature due to its salt content. The higher the salinity, the lower the freezing temperature. The freezing temperature of water with a salinity of 10 (a value indicating the amount of salt in seawater in psu = practical salinity units. Before 1982, it was expressed in parts per thousand (‰) = parts per mille) is approximately -0.5°C, but at a salinity of 33, the freezing temperature drops to -1.8°C.

Freezing also progresses in two ways depending on the salinity. When the temperature of the ocean's surface drops, the surface water becomes denser and heavier, causing a convection phenomenon in which it is replaced by the lighter water below. Water with a salinity lower than 24.7 reaches its maximum density at a certain temperature above the freezing point (for example, 1.9°C at a salinity of 10), so convection ends and the water stabilizes when the temperature from the surface to the bottom is higher than the freezing point. When the surface is cooled further, the water on the surface loses density, becomes lighter than the water below, and no longer sinks. As a result, the thin layer on the surface rapidly drops to the freezing temperature, and freezing progresses from the surface to the bottom.

Water with a salinity higher than 24.7 reaches its maximum density at a certain temperature lower than the freezing point (for example, -3.1°C at a salinity of 33). Therefore, if the entire layer reaches the freezing temperature through convection before the temperature drops to the maximum density, freezing will begin. In this case, the water will freeze from the surface, but if there is an appropriate stimulus, ice will form in the sea and float up. Sea ice is more likely to form in shallower seas with lower salinity and in seas with rough waves that cool more.

[Masaomi Akagawa]

Sea ice development

When the sea freezes, ice crystals called frazil ice first form in a layer several centimeters above the surface. The frazil ice gathers together and the sea surface becomes soup-like (grease ice, sludge), and then the wind and waves cause it to aggregate into a sponge-like structure (sponge ice). This developmental process is collectively called new ice. When cold air is added, it thickens and becomes niras (elastic, hard ice) or ice shell. When the ice breaks and collides with the wind and waves, the edges turn up, and it takes on a lotus leaf shape, it is called lotus leaf ice. When the ice thickens and reaches a thickness of 10 to 30 centimeters, it is called plate-shaped soft ice, and when it develops further it is called one-year ice. Ice that does not melt in the summer and goes through two winters is called two-year ice, and ice that is more than two years old is collectively called perennial ice. Sea ice is classified into different sizes, such as floe (20 meters or more in diameter), sheet ice (20 meters or less), and broken ice (2 meters or less).

Drifting sea ice is called drifting ice, which can be divided into drift ice fields, drift ice fields, and drift ice belts depending on its size. When ice blocks pile up under pressure, they are called ice hills, and when these are connected together they are called ice veins. When ice melts, puddles called puddles form on the surface. Sea ice contains concentrated salt water called brine, so it is weaker than freshwater ice with no gaps, and its strength is about one-third that of freshwater ice. The strength of sea ice weakens the more salt it contains and the higher its temperature.

[Masaomi Akagawa]

Sea ice areas

The majority of the ice cover is in the Antarctic Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and their surrounding areas, but in Asia it is the Bering Sea, the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, the coast of Hokkaido, the northern part of the Sea of ​​Japan, the coast of Primorsky Krai in Russia, the Bohai Sea in China, the seas around Greenland, Hudson Bay, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in North America, and the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Bothnia, and the Gulf of Finland in Europe. The total area of ​​sea ice on Earth is estimated to be about 40 million square kilometers, which is about 8% of the Earth's surface and about 11% of the total ocean surface. In the Arctic Ocean, about 85% of the ocean area (about 12 million square kilometers) is covered by sea ice in winter, and 75% of that is perennial ice in the center. Therefore, the sea ice area of ​​the Arctic Ocean in summer is 64%. The sea ice area of ​​the Antarctic Ocean is mostly one-year ice, and changes dramatically from about 20 million square kilometers to about 3.5 million square kilometers between winter and summer. At its peak, about 80% of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk is covered by sea ice.

[Masaomi Akagawa]

The impact of sea ice

Sea ice is a dangerous obstacle for ships' navigation, and drift ice can cause maritime accidents such as obstruction of navigation, damage to ships' hulls, or sinking. It can also wash up on coasts and block ports, and cause damage to fishing facilities and seaweed. For countries with sea ice regions, the movement and growth of sea ice has a great impact on the industry, economy, and public welfare. Sea ice is a major source of cold on the earth, so changes in the distribution and amount of sea ice affect the exchange of heat and kinetic energy between the sea ice, the atmosphere, and the ocean, which leads to changes in weather and ocean conditions. Climate change has become a major problem due to frequent abnormal weather and global warming, and how sea ice affects it is a future research topic. Sea ice countries report the current state and forecast of sea ice, and in Japan, the Hokkaido meteorological office also makes sea ice forecasts, and the Japan Meteorological Agency and the Japan Coast Guard make sea ice charts and information available via radio (fax) and the Internet.

Although sea ice may seem like an unwelcome guest, it also protects fish and shellfish resources because fishing activities are restricted in frozen seas, and the phytoplankton contained in the ice is an important food source for marine life. Furthermore, drift ice is a beautiful natural phenomenon of the northern regions and is a major tourist resource in Hokkaido in the winter.

[Masaomi Akagawa]

"Sea Ice" by Tabata Tadashi (included in "Basic Marine Science Course 4: Ocean Physics IV" by Masuzawa Jotaro, Hasunuma Keiichi, et al., 1977, Tokai University Press)""Nature of Hokkaido 7: Drift Ice" by Tabata Tadashi (1978, Hokkaido Shimbun Press)""Two Poles: Messages from the Arctic and Antarctic" edited by Oguchi Takashi, Kaminuma Katsutoshi, Kawaguchi Sadao, and Hoshiai Takao (1989, Maruzen)""Antarctic Science 8: Ocean" edited by the National Institute of Polar Research (1989, Kokin Shoin)" ▽ "White Sea, Frozen Sea: The Mysteries of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk" by Aota Masaaki (1993, Tokai University Press)""Basic Glaciology Course 6: Snow, Ice, and Hydrological Phenomena" by Ono Nobuo, Ishikawa Nobutaka, Arai Tadashi, Wakado Masaaki, and Aota Masaaki (1994, Kokin Shoin)"“Marine Weather Course” by Akira Fukuchi, 9th edition (2003, Seizando Shoten)

[References] | Sea of ​​Okhotsk | Seawater | Ocean | Greenland Sea | Ice | Gulf of St. Lawrence | Antarctic Ocean |Sea of ​​Japan | Hudson Strait | Baltic Sea | psu | Gulf of Finland | Bering Sea | Gulf of Bothnia |Bohai Sea| Hokkaido | Arctic Ocean | Drift ice
Antarctic sea ice
Most of the Antarctic sea ice is first-year ice .

Antarctic sea ice


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

海でできたすべての氷をいう。湖でできた氷を湖氷、河川でできた氷を河氷、氷河などのように陸でできた氷を陸氷とよび、それらのなかで水に浮かんでいるものを浮氷と総称する。

[赤川正臣]

塩分と結氷温度

真水は0℃で凍るが、海水は塩分があるため結氷温度が下がる。結氷温度は塩分が高いほど低く、塩分10(海水中の塩類の量をpsu=実用塩分単位で示した値。1982年以前は千分率‰=パーミルで表されていた)の水の結氷温度はほぼ零下0.5℃であるが、塩分が33になると零下1.8℃に下がる。

 結氷の進行も塩分の濃度によって2通りになる。海の表面の温度が下がると、表面の水は密度を増して重くなり、下の軽い水と入れ替わる対流現象をおこす。塩分が24.7より低い水は、結氷点より高いある温度(たとえば塩分10で1.9℃)で最大密度となるので、表面から底までが結氷点より高い温度で対流が終わり、安定する。さらに表面が冷やされると、表面の水は密度を減じ、下の水より軽くなり沈まなくなる。そのために表面の薄い層は急速に結氷温度に下がって、表面から底に向かって結氷が進行する。

 塩分が24.7より高い水は、結氷点より低いある温度(たとえば塩分33で零下3.1℃)で最大密度となる。したがって、最大密度の温度に下がる前に、対流によって全層が結氷温度になれば結氷が始まる。この場合も表面から凍るが、適当な刺激があれば海の中でも氷ができて浮かび上がってくる。海氷は塩分濃度の低い浅い海ほど、また冷却の大きい波の荒い海ほどできやすいことになる。

[赤川正臣]

海氷の発達

海が凍る場合、最初、表面数センチメートルの層に晶氷(しょうひょう)という氷の結晶が生ずる。晶氷は集まって海面はスープ状(グリースアイス、氷泥)となり、風や波で海綿状に集合する(スポンジ氷)。この発達過程のものを新成氷と総称する。寒気がさらに加わると厚さを増しニラス(弾力のある固い氷)や氷殻となる。風や波で割れてぶつかり、縁がめくれ上がって、ハスの葉のような形になったものをハス葉氷(はごおり)という。氷が厚くなって厚さが10~30センチメートルのものを板状軟氷(ばんじょうなんぴょう)とよび、さらに発達したものを一年氷(ごおり)という。夏も融(と)けずに二冬(ふたふゆ)を経過したものは二年氷といい、二年氷以上のものを多年氷と総称している。海氷の大きさについては、氷盤(直径20メートル以上)、板氷(いたごおり)(20メートル以下)、砕け氷(2メートル以下)などに分類される。

 漂流している海氷を流氷というが、その規模によって流氷野、流氷原、流氷帯などに分けられる。氷塊が圧迫を受けて重なり盛り上がったものを氷丘、それが連なったものを氷脈という。氷は融けると表面にパドルという水たまりができる。海氷のなかにはブラインという濃い塩水が閉じ込められているので、すきまのない淡水の氷に比べると弱く、強度は淡水氷の約3分の1ぐらいである。海氷の強度は海氷の塩分量が多く、温度が高いほど弱くなる。

[赤川正臣]

海氷のみられる海域

南極海、北極海およびその周辺が大部分であるが、アジアではベーリング海、オホーツク海、北海道沿海、日本海北部、ロシアでは沿海地方沿岸、中国では渤海(ぼっかい)周辺、北アメリカではグリーンランド周辺海湾、ハドソン湾、セント・ローレンス湾、ヨーロッパではバルト海、ボスニア湾、フィンランド湾などである。地球上の海氷域の総面積は約4000万平方キロメートルと推算されるが、これは全地球表面の約8%、全海面の約11%に相当する。北極海では、冬はその海域の約85%(約1200万平方キロメートル)が海氷に覆われ、その75%は中央部の多年氷である。したがって北極海の夏の海氷域は64%である。南極海の海氷域は大部分が一年氷で、冬から夏の間で約2000万平方キロメートルから約350万平方キロメートルへと大規模に変化する。オホーツク海は最盛期にはその約80%が海氷域となる。

[赤川正臣]

海氷の影響

海氷は船舶の航行にとっては危険な障害物で、流氷による航行阻害、船体破損あるいは沈没などの海難事故も発生する。また、沿岸に押し寄せて港湾をふさいだり、漁業施設、海藻などに被害を与えることがある。海氷地域の国にとっては、海氷の動向、消長のいかんは産業経済、民生にも大きな影響を及ぼす。海氷は地球上の大冷源であるので、海氷の分布や氷量の変化は、海氷と大気と海洋との間の熱や運動のエネルギーの交換に影響を与えて、気象や海況の変化をもたらすことになる。異常気象の頻発、地球温暖化現象などで気候変動が大きな問題になっているが、海氷がどのように影響しているかが今後の研究課題となっている。海氷国では海氷の実況や予報を通報しているが、日本でも北海道の気象官署が海氷予報を実施しており、気象庁や海上保安庁では海氷図や海氷情報の無線模写放送(ファクシミリ放送)やインターネットによる公開を行っている。

 海氷は招かれざる客のようであるが、氷海では漁業活動が制限されるので、魚貝類の資源保護にもなっており、氷塊に含まれる植物プランクトンは海の生物の重要な餌(えさ)となっている。また、流氷は北国の美しい自然現象として、北海道では冬の主要な観光資源でもある。

[赤川正臣]

『田畑忠司著「海氷」(増沢譲太郎・蓮沼啓一ほか著『海洋科学基礎講座4 海洋物理Ⅳ』所収・1977・東海大学出版会)』『田畑忠司著『北海道の自然7 流氷』(1978・北海道新聞社)』『小口高・神沼克伊・川口貞男・星合孝男編『二つの極――北極・南極からのメッセージ』(1989・丸善)』『国立極地研究所編『南極の科学8 海洋』(1989・古今書院)』『青田昌秋著『白い海、凍る海――オホーツク海のふしぎ』(1993・東海大学出版会)』『小野延雄・石川信敬・新井正・若土正暁・青田昌秋著『基礎雪氷学講座6 雪氷水文現象』(1994・古今書院)』『福地章著『海洋気象講座』9訂版(2003・成山堂書店)』

[参照項目] | オホーツク海 | 海水 | 海洋 | グリーンランド海 | | セント・ローレンス湾 | 南極海 | 日本海 | ハドソン海峡 | バルト海 | psu | フィンランド湾 | ベーリング海 | ボスニア湾 | 渤海 | 北海道 | 北極海 | 流氷
南極の海氷
南極海の海氷域は、大部分が一年氷である©Shogakukan">

南極の海氷


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