Asian mode of production (English: asiatische Produktionsweise) German

Japanese: アジア的生産様式 - あじあてきせいさんようしき(英語表記)asiatische Produktionsweise ドイツ語
Asian mode of production (English: asiatische Produktionsweise) German

A term used by Marx in the "Preface" to "Critique of Political Economy" (1859). He states that "broadly speaking, the Asiatic, ancient, feudal, and modern bourgeois modes of production may be represented as successive periods of economic social formation." However, he did not leave a clear explanation for the Asiatic mode of production (the main ownership relations of the means of production in that society) as he did for the other three modes of production. Therefore, the concept of the Asiatic mode of production has been much debated in terms of Marxist literature research and in terms of defining the social character for revolutionary strategies. In April 1927, Chiang Kai-shek staged a coup in Shanghai, and in November the Chinese Communist Party published a draft platform on the land question, in which it was stated that China was currently in a transitional period from the Asiatic mode of production to capitalism. This provision was rejected at the 5th Party Congress in August of the following year, 1928, but the draft owed much to the views of Lyudvig Ignat'evich Mad'yar (1891-1940), who was based in Shanghai at the time. In the first edition of Studies on the Rural Economy of China (1928), Mad'yar argued that China's socio-economic structure was an Asiatic mode of production in which artificial irrigation was the main condition for agriculture, land ownership was lacking, and the state was the ultimate landowner, adopting an Oriental despotism-based state form. Magyar's views were heavily criticized at the All-Union Conference of Agricultural Researchers of the Kom Academy in 1930, and a heated debate was also held at a large forum jointly sponsored by the Marxist Society for Oriental Studies and the Leningrad Institute of Oriental Studies in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) in February of the following year, 1931. When reports of the debate were sent out to various countries, it marked the start of a debate.

In Japan, discussions were held in conjunction with the debate on capitalism that had already begun, but were halted after 1935 (Showa 10). Later, in 1939, Marx's draft "Forms Antecedent to Capitalist Production" (1857-1858) was published in the Soviet Union, and introduced to Japan in 1947, and the debate resumed. The new concept in the draft, die Allgemeine Sklaverei (total slavery), was interpreted as expressing the characteristics of ancient Eastern societies that differed from the ancient slave societies of Greece and Rome, and the interpretation that the Asian mode of production was nothing other than an Asian form of slavery became prevalent for a time, but later it was taken up as an issue related to the rise of national movements in Asia and Africa and the accompanying understanding of Asian societies, a theoretical understanding of pre-modern history, especially ancient history, and an examination of Marxist literature. When this issue was taken up in the French magazine La Pensée in 1964, the debate became international, with lively discussions taking place in France, Hungary, the Soviet Union, Japan, China and other countries. However, since the late 1980s, however, it has rapidly died down due to the serious unrest in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.

The debate before and after the war can be broadly divided into those that see the Asian mode of production as basically corresponding to the historical development stages of economic and social structures such as primitive communities, slavery, feudalism, and capitalism, and those that see it as a different mode of production. The former includes the theory that it is a primitive community that existed before slavery, while the latter includes the five-stage theory that it is the first class society that emerged from a primitive community and was basically seen universally throughout world history; the theory that it is a society unique to Asia; and the theory that it is an Asian variant of ancient slavery and feudalism, a special society seen only in the Asian region.

Naomichi Hayashi (1923-) said that there were two meanings of the word "Asiatic" used by Marx: one was Asia, which is the same as the usual geographical concept, and the other was a primitive community. In a letter to Engels dated March 14, 1868, Marx wrote, "The Russian custom of redistributing land for a certain period of time was preserved in Germany in some places until the 18th century. Here (Maurer's study of German marks and villages) new evidence is given for my view that the Asiatic or Indian form of ownership originated everywhere in Europe." Marx used "Asiatic" as the same meaning as "Indian," and furthermore, he took India, which had been relatively well studied following British colonization, as the representative of Asia, and said that the Indian (= Asian) form of land ownership (the Asian mode of production) originated everywhere in Europe. Hayashi stated that this refers to the initial stage of human history, including both Asia and Europe, i.e. primitive communities, and further interpreted the problem of Eastern despotism as meaning that when a class society emerges from a primitive community, these class relations transform the original community relations into ones that are suited to the class society.

In recent years, archaeological research on the final period of primitive society in China has progressed rapidly, and it has become clear that large tombs and small castles accompanied by exquisite grave goods began to be built in the Yellow River and Yangtze River basins around 3000 BC. It is noteworthy how this relates to the comprehensive whole referred to in "various forms," ​​and future developments are anticipated.

[Naohiro Goi]

"The Community Debate and the Principle of Property," edited and translated by Fukutomi Masami (1970, Miraisha)""The Theory of the Asian Mode of Production, by Shiozawa Kimio (1970, Ochanomizu Shobo)""Studies on the Asian Mode of Production, by Kobayashi Yoshimasa (1970, Otsuki Shoten)""The Asian Mode of Production, by F. Tekei, translated by Hani Kyoko (1971, Miraisha)""Historical Materialism and Property Theory, by Hayashi Naomichi (1974, Otsuki Shoten)""Studies on Chinese History, 3rd issue, 1981 (Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)"

[References] | Asian Community | Ownership Debate | Mode of Production | Japanese Capitalism Debate

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

マルクスが『経済学批判』(1859)の「序言」で用いた用語。「大づかみにいって、アジア的、古代的、封建的および近代ブルジョア的生産様式が経済的社会構成の相次ぐ諸時期として表示されうる」と述べているが、アジア的生産様式(当該社会の生産手段の主要な所有関係)については、他の三つの生産様式のようには明確な説明を残さなかった。そのためマルクス主義文献研究の面で、また革命戦略のための社会性格規定のうえで、アジア的生産様式の概念についていろいろと論争されてきた。1927年4月、蒋介石(しょうかいせき)が上海(シャンハイ)でクーデターを起こすと、11月に中国共産党は土地問題党綱草案を発表し、そのなかで、現在の中国はアジア的生産様式から資本主義に移行する過渡期にあるとした。この規定は翌1928年8月の第5回党大会では否定されたが、草案は当時上海にあったマジャールЛюдвиг Игнатьевич Мадьяр/Lyudvig Ignat'evich Mad'yar(1891―1940)の見解に負うところが多く、マジャールは『中国農村経済研究』初版(1928)で、中国の社会経済構成は、人工灌漑(かんがい)が農業の主要条件であり、土地所有が欠如し、国家が最高の土地所有者である東洋的専制主義の国家形態をとるアジア的生産様式であるとした。マジャールのこの見解に対しては、1930年のコム・アカデミー農業研究家全同盟会議で多くの批判が出され、翌1931年2月レニングラード(現、サンクト・ペテルブルグ)で開かれたマルクス主義東洋学研究協会とレニングラード東洋学研究所共同主催の大討論会でも激論が展開された。その模様が各国に伝えられると、これを機に論争が開始された。

 日本でも、すでに始まっていた資本主義論争と相まって議論が行われたが、1935年(昭和10)以降は政治的弾圧のために中止された。その後1939年にマルクスの草稿「資本制生産に先行する諸形態」(1857~1858)がソ連で公表され、1947年に日本にも紹介されると、論争が再開された。草稿中の新しい概念、総体的奴隷制die Allgemeine Sklavereiが、ギリシア・ローマ的古代奴隷制社会とは異なる古代東方社会の特徴を表現したものと解釈され、アジア的生産様式とは、奴隷制のアジア的形態にほかならないとする解釈が一時期有力となったが、その後、アジア、アフリカにおける民族運動の高揚とそれに伴うアジア社会の理解、前近代史とりわけ古代史の理論的把握、マルクス主義文献の検討などの問題として取り上げられた。1964年、フランスの『パンセ』La Pensée誌上でこの問題が取り上げられると、論争は国際化し、フランス、ハンガリー、ソ連、日本、中国などで論争が活発となったが、1980年代後半以降、ソ連、東欧圏の深刻な混乱もあって急速に衰えた。

 戦前、戦後の論争は、アジア的生産様式を原始共同体、奴隷制、封建制、資本主義の経済的社会構成体の歴史的発展段階と基本的に合致するものとする説と、それとは別の生産様式とする説に大別される。前者には奴隷制以前の原始共同体とする説、後者には原始共同体のなかから生まれた最初の階級社会で、基本的には世界史上普遍的にみられたとする五段階説。アジア特有の社会とする説。古代奴隷制や封建性のアジア的変種で、アジア地域にのみ、みられた特殊な社会とする説などがある。

 林直道(なおみち)(1923― )はマルクスが使用した「アジア的」という言葉には2種類あり、一つは、通常の地理的概念と同じアジア、もう一つは、原始共同体のことをさしたものであるとした。マルクスの、1868年3月14日付けのエンゲルスあての手紙には「一定の期間における土地の再分配というロシア的な風習がドイツでは所によっては18世紀に至るまで、(略)、保存されていた、ということだ。アジア的またはインド的な所有形態がヨーロッパのどこでも端緒をなしている、という僕の主張した見解がここでは(マウラーのドイツのマルクや村落の研究)新たに証拠を与えられている」と書いてある。マルクスは「アジア的」を「インド的」と同意義に使用し、しかも、イギリスの植民地化に伴って比較的研究の進んでいたインドをアジアの代表とし、インド的(=アジア的)土地所有の形態(アジア的生産様式)はヨーロッパのどこでも端緒をなしているといっている。林は、それはアジアもヨーロッパも含めた人類史の端緒段階すなわち原始共同体のことをさしているのであるとし、さらに原始共同体のなかから階級社会が生まれてくる場合、その階級関係は元の共同体関係を、自己に適合したものに変容させるとして東洋的専制主義の問題を解釈した。

 近年中国の原始社会晩期の考古学研究調査が急速に進展し、紀元前3000年前後に精美な副葬品を伴う大墓や小城郭が黄河(こうが)、長江(ちょうこう/チャンチヤン)の流域で築かれ始めたことが明らかになった。これが「諸形態」にいう総括的統一体とどのようにかかわるか注目に値し、今後の展開が期待される。

[五井直弘]

『福富正実編訳『共同体論争と所有の原理』(1970・未来社)』『塩沢君夫著『アジア的生産様式論』(1970・御茶の水書房)』『小林良正著『アジア的生産様式研究』(1970・大月書店)』『『アジア的生産様式』F・テーケイ著、羽仁協子訳(1971・未来社)』『林直道著『史的唯物論と所有理論』(1974・大月書店)』『『中国史研究』1981年3期(中国社会科学院歴史研究所)』

[参照項目] | アジア的共同体 | 所有論論争 | 生産様式 | 日本資本主義論争

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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