Manyoshu - Man'yoshu

Japanese: 万葉集 - まんようしゅう

The oldest surviving collection of poems. It is unclear when the 20 volumes of the Manyoshu were compiled into the form we see today. The most recent poem with a clear date was written by Otomo no Yakamochi in January of 759 (Tenpyo Houji 3), so the final compilation must have been made after that. Yamada Yoshio noted that in the Azuma Uta, Musashi Province was incorporated into the Tokaido, and estimated that it was compiled after 771 (Hōki 2), when Musashi Province was transferred from the Tosando to the Tokaido. Tokuda Kiyoshi also closely examined the use of honorifics in the Man'yoshu and concluded that volumes 1 to 16 were compiled between 746 (Tenpyo 18) and 753 (Tenpyo Shoho 5), and volumes 17 and onwards were compiled between June 759 (Tenpyo Hoji 3) and January 764, surmising that revisions were made to volumes 16 and earlier around that time, and that revisions were made to all 20 volumes between January 777 (Hōki 8) and the following year. Ito Haku's theory, which develops a similar idea of dividing the work into volumes up to 16 and volumes 17 and onwards from a different perspective, is currently considered the most likely.

According to Ito's theory, the most recent poem in volumes 1 to 16 (called Part 1) is dated "July 20th, 744, Tenpyo 16th year." In contrast, Part 2 (volumes 17 and onward) contains poems from January 746 (Tenpyo 18) to January 759 (Tenpyo Houji 3), with a few exceptions (3890 to 3921 poems). Part 1 is what should be called the "Gensho Manyo," and was compiled in the few years after 745 (Tenpyo 17). Part 2 was followed by three volumes, volumes 17, 18, and 19, which were compiled between August 753 (Tenpyo Shoho 5) and the beginning of 758 (Tenpyo Houji 2), and then volume 20 was added. The person who played a key role in compiling the 20 volumes was Otomo no Yakamochi, and the version that is almost identical to the current one was completed between 782 (Enryaku 1) and the following year. As for volumes 1 and 2, the first half of volume 1 was compiled in the first year of the Monmu reign at the initiative of Empress Jito, and the second half was added between 712 (Wadō 5) and 721 (Yorō 5), and volume 2 was compiled around the same time, following Jito's Manyō ideas. Ito says that it is likely that volumes 1 and 2 were the basis for the 16 and 20 volumes that grew into the current form. However, there are still issues that remain, and these will likely continue to be discussed and refined in the future.

[Koji Inaoka]

Name

There are various theories about the meaning of the title "Manyoshu." The currently most popular theories can be broadly divided into three: (1) that it is a collection of many poems, (2) that it is a collection that was meant to be passed down to all ages, and (3) that it is a compromise between the two above. All of these theories are based on collecting examples of the use of the compound word "Manyo" from both Japanese and Chinese literature, and inferring which one is more appropriate as a title. Option (2) is more common in Chinese literature, but the names of later Japanese collections of poems, such as "Kinyoshu" and "Shinyoshu," contain examples of the character "ha" meaning poem, so it is possible that "Manyoshu" was a precedent for these, and a compromise has also been made that the meaning of "mansei" was added, so that both meanings were included, and no consensus has yet been reached.

[Koji Inaoka]

Era, style and author

According to the records in the Man'yoshu, the oldest poem was written by Empress Iwahime of Emperor Nintoku, and then there are also poems by Emperor Yuryaku, but these are handed down poems and cannot be trusted as written. In reality, the Man'yoshu can be considered to have begun in the reign of Emperor Jomei (629-641), the first half of the 7th century. From then until 759 (Tenpyo Hoji 3), it contains over 4,500 poems, including long poems, short poems, sentou-ka, and bussoku-seki-ka, by nearly 500 poets, from emperors to commoners, over a period of about 130 years, and during this time, a considerable change can be seen from the perspective of literary history. Therefore, when looking at the style of poetry, it is usually divided into four periods.

[Koji Inaoka]

First Period

From the reign of Emperor Suiko to the Jinshin War (672), these 40 years were one of the most turbulent periods in the history of ancient Japan. There was a succession of bloody political struggles, including the coup d'état to exterminate the Soga clan in June 645 (the 4th year of the reign of Emperor Kōgyoku), the rebellion of Furuhito no Oe in September of the same year, the Soga no Kurayamada Ishikawamaro incident in 649 (the 5th year of the Taika era), and the death of Prince Arima in 658 (the 4th year of the reign of Empress Saimei). During this time, however, major reforms known as the Taika Reforms were carried out, solidifying the foundations of the ancient nation. Furthermore, there were many events and difficulties both at home and abroad, such as the Western Expedition of a fleet to invade Silla in 661 (the 7th year of the reign of Emperor Saimei), the defeat at Baekgang in 663 (the 2nd year of Emperor Tenchi), and the relocation of the capital to Omi in 667.

The poems of the first period are called early Manyo poems and are attracting attention not only because of their connection to the Taika Reforms and other events, and because of their ancient views of life and nature, but also because of the distinctive oral and pre-written characteristics that can be seen in their relationship to written records. To summarize the characteristics of the poems of this period in comparison with those of the second period and later, we can point to their collectivity, enthusiasm, integration with nature, deep connections with popular songs and folk songs, and magical nature. The collectivity and enthusiasm are borderline artistic characteristics that are different from the so-called literary consciousness that aims for artistic value, and are related to the fact that many of the early Manyo poems are connected to court ceremonies and folk customs. In long poems, such as Emperor Jomei's national viewing song, "Yamato is said to have many mountains, and I climbed the heavenly Mount Kagu to look out over the country, and saw smoke rising from the plains, and the sea rose to life, and the beautiful land of Akizu Island, Yamato," Nakatsumera no Mikoto's hunting song from Uchino, and the poem by Nukata no Okimi when the capital was moved to Omi, there are strong restrictions on the setting. The relationship with popular songs and folk songs is characteristic of the entire Manyoshu, but it can be said that it was particularly strong from the early Manyo period to the second period. The fact that most of the love songs of this period are marriage proposal songs shows that their origins can be found in the dialogues of song festivals, and the exchange between Princess Nukata and Prince Oama during a hunting trip to Gamou on May 5, 668 (the 7th year of Emperor Tenchi) that follows "I'm heading to the crimson-colored Murasakino field, the guardian of the field is not watching me wave my sleeves," and "If I hate my sister who blooms in the purple grass, I love her because she is a married woman," is an impromptu song at a banquet that follows the tradition of dialogue, and is different from the so-called lyric songs of secret love, as can be seen from the category of miscellaneous songs and the lyrics. The integration with nature, like its magical nature, has an ancient view of nature and the soul as its background. The tendency to recognize spirituality in nature, to revere it while also depending on it, and to be in harmony with nature is thought to be an inevitable state of affairs rooted in the Japanese climate and agricultural life, and it is in the early Manyo poems that such feelings about nature are most strongly expressed.

After the Taika Reforms, the reign of Emperor Tenchi saw the establishment of a new national system, the expansion of the government officials system, the concentration of people in the capital, and the introduction of foreign culture to operate the new system. The historical conditions for the birth of a new literary trend were almost complete. The new literary consciousness gained through the reading of Chinese poetry and the writing of Japanese Chinese poetry in imitation of it must have impressed people with a world of words different from that of oral songs. This literary consciousness gradually permeated the ideas and expressions of Yamato songs, and while the songs of this period do not use subjective language much and retain a marginal literary character that focuses on objective and immediate expressions, they are relatively more internalized than the songs in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, and retain a unique beauty of expression that captures the essence of the subject in simple words. This also shows that the stage has not yet been completely broken away from oral songs to written lyric songs.

[Koji Inaoka]

Second Period

From the Jinshin War until the capital was moved to Nara (710), the reign of Emperor Tenmu saw the establishment of a powerful, absolute monarchy. Along with the realization of imperial family politics and the development and improvement of political institutions, this was also a vibrant period for cultural undertakings. A series of undertakings, such as the presentation of tributes by poets in February 675 (the 4th year of Emperor Tenmu), the Imperial Edict to revise the Ritsuryo Code in February 681 (the 10th year of Emperor Tenmu), the Imperial Chronicle and the Imperial Records of Ancient Affairs in March of the same year, and the compilation of 44 volumes of the Shinji in the following year (682), succinctly represent the cultural dynamics of this period.

Kakinomoto no Hitomaro's activities spanned the three reigns of Emperors Tenmu, Jitō and Mommu. His career as a poet began during the establishment of the Ritsuryo state, and the transition from oral literature to written literature, which can be said to have fundamentally determined the nature of his poetry. Hitomaro was the first poet to compose poetry using text. His method of composing poetry was different from that of previous generations, as is clear from the pillow words, introductory words and couplets, and a shift from oral recitation to the methods of written literature is noted. It was also during this period that the possibilities of the various forms of poetry - choka, tanka and sentōka - were explored in written form. Unlike the songs in the Kojiki and Nihon shoki, or early Man'yō poems, Hitomaro left behind choka with dozens or even over 100 verses, due to the influence of Chinese poetry. His private elegies unrelated to the funeral rites and choka poems that express his sadness at his separation from his wife in Iwami, such as "Iwami Sea, Tsuno Bay, I see people looking at me, lagoons looking at me, bays and lagoons, yoshie yashi, even if there is no bay, yoshie yashi, even if there is no lagoon..." also suggest the literary qualities of Umihito. It was Hitomaro who made tanka poems that go beyond the time and space bounds of choka to become independent. The fact that tanka poems and tanka poems are arranged in a serial fashion is probably related to the fact that they were enjoyed as literature to be read, away from the rituals. Hitomaro also wrote poems that seem to be in a state of being mixed and one with the subject, whether it be nature or human affairs. This is thought to be deeply related to the blending with nature that was a characteristic of his first period, but this delicate harmony between emotional expression and modern techniques is no longer seen after him.

Poets from the same period as Hitomaro include Emperor Tenmu, Empress Jito, Prince Otsu, Princess Ooku, Prince Shiki, Prince Hozumi, Princess Tajima, Prince Takechi, Prince Naga, Prince Yuge, and other members of the imperial family, as well as Fujiwara no Bunin, Ishikawa no Iratsume, Shihi no Omina, Takaichi Kurohito, Nagano Okimaro, and Kasuga no Oyu. Of particular note are the elegy for Prince Otsu and his sister Princess Ooku, who died an untimely death in a rebellion, Princess Tajima's passionate love song for her half-brother Prince Hozumi, Takaichi Kurohito's song about a "lonely" journey, and Okimaro's impromptu songs.

[Koji Inaoka]

Third Period

From the time the capital was moved to Nara to 733 (Tenpyo 5). This was a period in the history of waka poetry after Hitomaro's departure when various individual styles blossomed. In the capital of Nara, modeled on the Tang Dynasty's Chang'an-kyo, continental culture was highly valued, and the study of Chinese classics and the composition of Chinese poetry and prose were widely practiced among aristocrats and officials. The Nara poetry circle, centered around Prince Nagaya, was crowded with aristocrats and writers such as Fujiwara Fusasaki, Fujiwara Umakai, Abe no Hironiwa, Yoshida no Yoroshi, and Senano Yukifumi, and poetry parties were frequently held at the king's Saho residence. It has been pointed out that his poetry was influenced not only by Six Dynasties poems such as "Wen Xuan" and "Yutai Shinyo" but also by the poems and prefaces of early Tang poets Wang Bo and Luobin Wang. The influence of Chinese literature also extended to Yamato poetry, which became more clearly expressed in ideas and expressions compared to the second period. Of particular note was the Tsukushi poetry circle formed around Otomo no Tabito, who became Dazai no Sochi in 728 (Jinki 5) and traveled down to Kyushu. The Plum Blossom poems, which were written in collaboration with many government officials such as Yamanoue Okura, Ono no Oyu, and Shami Manzei, applied the format of early Tang poetry with a preface to Yamato poetry, and the preface to Matsuura River was also inspired by "Yusenkutsu" and "Rakushin nofu" in "Wenxuan," making it a distinctive feature of the Chikushi poetry circle. The encounter in Chikushi between Otomo no Tabito and Yamanoue Okura, two men with polar opposite personalities, views on life, and literature, was also a significant event in the history of literature. While the romantic and imaginative traveler sings in flowing tones about his lamentation of old age and homesickness, and his longing for his late wife with lyrics such as "Every time I see the plum tree my sister planted, my heart choks and tears flow," the practical and logical Okura sings in a droll tune about the pains of old age, illness, poverty and death with lyrics such as "When I catch the noisy children, they make a fuss, I do not know that I am going to die. But as I watch them, my heart burns. How can I not cry, thinking of this with such difficulty?" It can be said that by being conscious of the other, each of them is able to clarify their own characteristics even more.

Among the central poets, Kasanokanamura, Kurumamuchino Chitose, Yamabe no Akahito and others inherited Hitomaro's hymn tradition. Akahito in particular learned from Hitomaro's style, but showed a distinctive descriptive expression of nature through his refined sensibility. Akahito also produced intricate and clever poems, showing an aspect of the style that is connected to the later Kokinshu. Apart from these court poets, Takahashi Mushimaro, who became a local official in the eastern provinces, stood out with his songs of legends and travels under the patronage of Fujiwara no Ugo.

[Koji Inaoka]

Fourth Period

From 734 (Tenpyo 6) to 759 (Tenpyo Hoji 3) during the reign of Emperor Junnin. It was a glorious era with the construction of Todaiji Temple and the consecration of the Great Buddha, but it was also a time when Tenpyo culture was at its peak and politics faced difficult times as power struggles among the upper classes intensified. In this climate, poets composed many delicate and elegant poems. The poets of this period who are most notable are those who had close ties to Otomo no Yakamochi. The poems of this group of courtesans, such as Kasa no Iratsume, who left behind a sad and beautiful piece of love-gifts for Yakamochi, Kino no Iratsume, who seems to have made the young Yakamochi kneel down with her skillful poems, and Otomo no Sakanoue no Iratsume, who left behind a wide variety of works such as songs to deities, songs of resentment, and poems dedicated to Emperor Shomu as the head of the Otomo clan, are representative of the elegance of the late Manyo period and have a character that leads to the poetry of women of the court. As for men, there are many poems by Otomo Ikenushi, a poetic friend of Yakamochi's during his time as Ecchu no Kami, and Tanabe Sakimaro, who descended from a lineage of court poets. Other notable poems from this period, when there were many recreational songs for banquets, include 145 poems by the envoys to Silla who departed from Naniwa in June 736 (Tenpyo 8); 63 poems exchanged between Nakatomi no Yakamori, who was exiled to Echizen Province, and Sano no Otogami no Otome, who was waiting for his pardon; and poems by the Sakimori (defence forces) of 755 (Tenpyo Shoho 7). These poems are notable for their frank lyricism.

Otomo no Yakamochi's works span from 733 (Tenpyo 5) to 759 (Tenpyo Houji 3). From his childhood poems that evoked the faint crescent moon and the eyebrows of beautiful women, he added inner richness through his life in the provinces during his time as Etchu no Kami and through his many experiences in composing poetry, learning from the works of Hitomaro and Okura, and also acquired inspiration from Chinese literature, leading to his own unique style of poetry. In particular, his poem about the peach blossoms in the spring garden, written in March 750 (Tenpyo Shoho 2), entitled "I set out on a bright road beneath the crimson blossoms of the spring garden," and three poems in July 751, when he returned to Kyoto as Shonagon, that express the vague thoughts of Kasuga, are highly acclaimed. It is also believed that the revisions made before volume 16 were made before Yakamochi's time as Etchu no Kami, which suggests the great role that Yakamochi played in the establishment and transmission of the Manyoshu. Furthermore, of the 4,500 or so poems in the Manyoshu, approximately 1,800 or so poems are of unknown authorship. In addition to the Azuma-uta in Volume 14, many of these works can be found in Volumes 7, 10, 11, 12, and 13, and we should not forget that they formed the foundation of the Manyoshu like a mighty, flowing river.

[Koji Inaoka]

Nature and impact

The Manyoshu is a collection of poems compiled during the formation of the ancient Ritsuryo state, and in literary history terms, it is a collection of early works that gave rise to written lyric songs from oral folk songs. It includes songs by the emperor, empress, imperial family, and aristocrats, as well as common people of lower social classes, so you can experience the emergent and ambitious energy of ancient people. In other words, you can experience the breath of lively life unfiltered by delicate beauty, and in this respect the essence of the Manyoshu can be seen. When compared to poems from the Kokinshu and later, it is only natural that the Manyoshu is often criticized as simple and childish. Since the Middle Ages, whenever the history of waka poetry reached a deadlock, the Manyoshu was always looked to and a revival of the Manyo style was advocated. It can be said that this was because there was a desire to draw on the fresh energy of the Manyoshu to restore the weakened power of poetry.

[Koji Inaoka]

Transmission and Research

The readings added to poems in the Manyoshu in 951 (Tenryaku 5) are called koten, and the readings added later in the Heian period to poems that were left unread at that time are called joten. The Katsuramiya version of the Manyoshu, formerly owned by the Katsuranomiya family, the oldest of the old manuscripts from the Heian period, retains traces of the koten, while later copies such as the indigo paper version, the Genryaku version, the Kanazawa version, the Tenji version, the Amagasaki version, and the Ruiju Koshu convey the joten. There are no joten copies of the complete 20 volumes of the Manyoshu in existence. The new readings were added to all poems that did not have old or next readings added when Sengaku collated various manuscripts and revised the readings and main texts in the mid-Kamakura period, and the Nishi Honganji version is the oldest complete version with 20 volumes that handed down this work, and is currently used as the base text for the correction of the main text in many commentaries. There was also the Kishu version, which was copied from the end of the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period, and later the Jingu Bunko version, Hosoi version, Onkodo version, Oya version, Kyoto University version, and Kanazawa Bunko version appeared, and in the Edo period, printed and woodblock versions also began to circulate. Since it is not easy to read through all of these extant versions, the "Collated Manyoshu" edited by Sasaki Nobutsuna et al. was published from 1924 (Taisho 13) to the following year, which compiled the differences and similarities in the characters of the various versions.

The oldest commentary is Senkaku's "Man'yoshu Annotated," completed in 1269 (Bun'ei 6). Later, there was Yua's "Shirin Saiyosho," and in the early modern period there was Kitamura Kigin's "Man'yoshu Shusuisho" (1690), Shimokobe Choryu's "Man'yoshu Kanken" (1661?), Keichu's "Man'yoshu Daishouki" (first draft 1688, selected edition 1690), Kamo Mabuchi's "Man'yoshu Ko" and "Kanji Ko," Kada Azumaro's "Man'yoshu Hekian Ko" and "Man'yoshu" (Man'yoshu) which was a transcription of Harumitsu's lectures by his younger brother Nobuna. Among the works compiled were "Doumo Sho," "Manyoshu: Tama no Ogoto" by Motoori Norinaga, "Manyoshu: Tsuki no Ochiba" by Arakida Hisaoyu, "Manyoshu: A Brief Commentary on the Manyoshu" by Tachibana Chikage, "Manyoshu Research" by Kishimoto Yuzuru, "Manyoshu: Suminawa" and "Manyoshu: Hinotsuma Made" by Tachibana Moribe, "Manyoshu: Lantern" by Fujitani Mitsue, "Manyoshu: A Comprehensive Commentary on the Manyoshu" by Kagawa Kageki, and "Manyoshu: Ancient Meanings" by Kamochi Masazumi. After the Meiji period, research on the Manyoshu became more active as poets of the Araragi school actively promoted and criticized it. In addition to Kimura Masakoto's Manyoshu Mifugushi and Inoue Michiyasu's New Thoughts on the Manyoshu, a wide variety of research was carried out, including linguistic studies by Hashimoto Shinkichi and Saeki Umetomo, folkloric studies by Orikuchi Shinobu, literary studies by Okazaki Yoshie and Takagi Ichinosuke, and geographical studies by Kitajima Yoshie, providing a foothold for research after the Second World War.

[Koji Inaoka]

"Japanese Classical Literature Series 4-7 Manyoshu, annotated by Takagi Ichinosuke, Gomi Tomohide, and Ohno Susumu (1957-1962, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Japanese Classical Literature Collection 2-5 Manyoshu, annotated by Kojima Noriyuki, Kinoshita Masatoshi, and Satake Akihiro (1971-1975, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Shincho Japanese Classical Collection Manyoshu, 5 volumes, annotated by Aoki Ikuko et al. (1976-1984, Shinchosha)" ▽ "Man'yoshu, 4 volumes, edited and translated by Nakanishi Susumu (Kodansha Bunko)" ▽ "Gomi Tomohide, Supplement to Ancient Waka Poetry (1987, Kasama Shoin)" ▽ "The Structure and Establishment of the Manyoshu, Volumes 1 and 2, by Ito Hiroshi (1975, Hanawa Shobo)" ▽ "Complete History of Japanese Literature 1, Ancient Period, edited by Okubo Tadashi (1978, Gakutosha)" ▽ "Manyoshu Notation Theory" by Inaoka Koji (1976, Hanawa Shobo)" ▽ "History of Research on the Manyoshu" by Okubo Tadashi (included in "Waka Literature Lecture Series 12", 1970, Ohfusha)" ▽ "Manyoshu Essential Guide" edited by Inaoka Koji (1981, Gakutosha)

[References] | Eastern Songs | Otomo no Yakamochi | Kakinomoto no Hitomaro | Defender Songs

"Manyoshu"
Woodblock print, volume 19, published during the Keicho era (1596-1615). The first two poems are from the poem "Shunen Touri no Uta" by Otomo no Yakamochi, held at the National Diet Library .

"Manyoshu"

Annotated Man'yoshu
Volume 1, by Senkaku, published in 1269 (Bun'ei 6), held at the National Diet Library

Annotated Man'yoshu

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

現存最古の歌集。『万葉集』20巻が現在みる形にまとめられたのはいつか不明。年代の明らかなもっとも新しい歌は759年（天平宝字3）正月の大伴家持(おおとものやかもち)の作だから、最終的な編纂(へんさん)はそれ以後となる。山田孝雄(よしお)は、東歌(あずまうた)のなかで武蔵(むさし)国を東海道に編入していることに注目し、同国の東山道から東海道に移された771年（宝亀2）以後と推定。また徳田浄(きよし)は、『万葉集』の卑敬称法を精査し、巻1から巻16までを746年（天平18）以後753年（天平勝宝5）まで、巻17以下を759年（天平宝字3）6月以後764年正月までの成立とし、そのころ巻16以前の手入れがあり、さらに20巻全体に777年（宝亀8）正月から翌年にかけて手入れが行われたと推測した。同様に巻16までと巻17以降とに二分する考え方を別の視点から展開したのが伊藤博(はく)説で、現在もっとも有力視されている。

　伊藤説によれば、巻1から巻16まで（これを第1部という）のうち、もっとも新しい歌は「天平(てんぴょう)十六年（744）七月二十日」の日付をもつ。これに対し第2部（巻17以降）は、少数の例外（3890歌～3921歌）を除けば、746年（天平18）1月から759年（天平宝字3）1月までの作品がすべてである。第1部は「元正(げんしょう)万葉」と称すべき部分で、745年（天平17）以降の数年間に成立、第2部はこれに続いて753年（天平勝宝5）8月以後758年（天平宝字2）初頭までに巻17、18、19の3巻が成り、そののち巻20が加えられた。20巻本を集成した立役者は大伴家持で、現存の形とほぼ等しいものができたのは782年（延暦1）から翌年にかけてであろう。巻1、巻2に関していえば、巻1の前半部が持統(じとう)天皇の発意によって文武(もんむ)朝の初年に編纂され、後半部の追補は712年（和銅5）から721年（養老5）までに行われ、同じころ持統万葉の企図を受け継いで巻2が編まれたと思われる。この巻1、巻2を母胎として16巻本、20巻本に成長して現在の形に至ったのだろうと伊藤はいう。なお問題も残されており、今後も論議が重ねられ、煮つめられてゆくと思われる。

［稲岡耕二］

名義

『万葉集』という書名の意義についても種々の説がある。現在有力な説を大別すると、（1）多くの歌を集めたものとする説、（2）万代・万世まで伝えたい集であるとする説、（3）前掲2説の折衷説、の三つになる。いずれも「万葉」という熟語の用例を和漢にわたって収集し、書名としていずれがふさわしいかを推測する方法による。漢籍に例が多いのは（2）であるが、日本の後代の歌集名には『金葉集』『新葉集』などもみえ、歌を意味する葉の例が拾えるから、『万葉集』がそれらの先例だった可能性も否定しきれない。それに万世の義も加えられて結局両義が含まれていたのではないかという折衷案も生ずるわけで、なお定説が得られない状態である。

［稲岡耕二］

時代・歌風・作者

『万葉集』の記載に従えば、もっとも古い歌は仁徳(にんとく)天皇の皇后磐媛(いわのひめ)の作であり、ついで雄略(ゆうりゃく)天皇の御製もみえるが、それらは伝誦(でんしょう)歌で、記載どおりに信ずることはできない。実質的に『万葉集』は舒明(じょめい)天皇の時代（629～641）から始まるとみてよいであろう。7世紀の前半にあたる。それから759年（天平宝字3）まで約130年間の長歌、短歌、旋頭歌(せどうか)、仏足石歌(ぶっそくせきか)など4500首余り、天皇から庶民まで500名近くの歌人の作品を収録しているのであって、その間には文学史的にみてかなり著しい変化も認められる。そこで歌風を概観する場合に普通これを4期に分けている。

［稲岡耕二］

第一期

舒明朝から壬申(じんしん)の乱（672）まで。この40年余りは日本古代史のなかでもとくに激動の時期であった。645年（皇極4）6月の蘇我(そが)氏誅滅(ちゅうめつ)のクーデター、同年9月の古人大兄(ふるひとのおおえ)の謀反(むほん)、649年（大化5）の蘇我倉山田石川麻呂(まろ)事件、658年（斉明天皇4）の有間(ありま)皇子の死など血なまぐさい政争が続いたし、その間に大化改新という大改革も行われ、古代国家の基礎が固められた。さらに661年（斉明7）の新羅(しらぎ)征討船団の西征、663年（天智天皇2）の白村江における敗戦と667年の近江(おうみ)遷都など、内外ともに多事多難であった。

　第一期の歌が初期万葉歌とよばれて注目されるのは、大化改新ほか数々の事件との関係や人生観・自然観の古代性にもよるが、文字記録との関係から、口誦(こうしょう)的・前記載的な特殊性が認められるためである。この期の歌の特徴を第二期以後と比較しつつ要約すると、集団性、意欲性、自然との融即性、歌謡や民謡とのつながりの深さ、呪術(じゅじゅつ)的性格などがあげられる。集団性、意欲性は芸術的価値を目的とするいわゆる文学意識とは別の限界芸術的性格で、初期万葉歌の多くが宮廷儀礼や民間習俗の場と結び付いていることと関連している。「大和(やまと)には　群山(むらやま)ありと　とりよろふ　天(あめ)の香具山(かぐやま)　登り立ち　国見(くにみ)をすれば　国原は　煙立ち立つ　海原は　かまめ立ち立つ　うまし国そ　あきづ島　大和の国は」という舒明天皇の国見歌や中皇命(なかつすめらみこと)の宇智野(うちの)の猟(かり)の歌、近江遷都のときの額田王(ぬかたのおおきみ)作歌など、長歌にはことに場の制約が強く認められる。歌謡や民謡との関係は『万葉集』全般に及ぶ性格ではあるが、初期万葉から第二期にかけてとくに濃密だということができる。この期の相聞(そうもん)歌のほとんどが求婚の問答歌であるのは、歌垣(うたがき)の掛け合いにそれらの源流が求められることを語っているし、668年（天智天皇7）5月5日蒲生野(がもうの)遊猟時の額田王と大海人皇子(おおあまのおうじ)との「あかねさす紫野行き標野(しめの)行き野守は見ずや君が袖(そで)振る」「紫草(むらさき)のにほへる妹(いも)を憎くあらば人妻ゆゑにわれ恋ひめやも」という贈答が、掛け合いの伝統を承(う)ける宴席の即興歌で、いわゆる忍ぶ恋の叙情歌と異質であることも、雑歌(ぞうか)というその部立(ぶだて)や歌詞によって察せられよう。自然との融即性は呪的性格と同様に古代的な自然観や霊魂観を背景とする。自然に霊性を認め、それを畏怖(いふ)しつつそれに依存し、自然と親和融即する傾向をもつのは、日本の風土と農業生活に根ざした必然的なあり方と考えられるが、そうした自然感情のもっとも強く表れているのが初期万葉歌である。

　大化改新を経て天智(てんじ)朝になると新国家の体制が樹立され、官人制の拡充、都城への集住、新制度を動かすための舶来の教養など文学的新風を生み出す歴史的条件もほぼ整った。漢詩を〈読む〉こと、およびそれに模して和製の漢詩を〈書く〉ことを通して得た新しい文学の意識が、口誦の歌とは別のことばの世界を人々に印象づけたはずである。そうした海彼の文学の意識が徐々にやまと歌の発想や表現に浸透してゆくのであって、この期の歌が、主観語をあまり用いず、客観的・即事的な表現を主とする限界文芸的性格を残しながら、記紀歌謡より相対的に内面化し、対象の核心を簡浄なことばでとらえる固有の表現美を保持しているのも、口誦の歌謡から記載の叙情歌へまだ脱けきらないその位相を語ると思われる。

［稲岡耕二］

第二期

壬申の乱以後、奈良遷都（710）まで。天武(てんむ)朝には強大な専制王権が確立された。皇親政治の実現や政治機構の整備充実とともに、文化的諸事業においても活気に満ちた時期であった。675年（天武天皇4）2月の歌人貢上、681年（天武天皇10）2月の律令(りつりょう)修定の詔(みことのり)、同3月の帝紀および上古(じょうこ)の諸事記定の詔、翌682年の『新字』44巻の作成など、一連の事業はこの期の文化の動態を端的に表している。

　柿本人麻呂(かきのもとのひとまろ)の活動は天武・持統・文武の三朝に及ぶ。その歌人としての出発が律令国家の成立期であり、また口誦文学から記載文学への転換期であったことは、彼の歌の性格を根本的に規定しているといってよい。人麻呂は文字によって作歌した最初の歌人である。その作歌法が前代と異なることは〈枕詞(まくらことば)〉〈序詞〉〈対句〉などをみても明らかで、口誦的性格から記載文学の方法への変化が指摘される。長歌、短歌、旋頭歌それぞれの歌体の可能性が記載次元で探られたのもこの時期だった。記紀歌謡や初期万葉歌とは異なり、数十句さらには100句を超える長歌を人麻呂が残したのは、中国詩の影響による。殯宮(ひんきゅう)儀礼などとかかわらない私的な挽歌(ばんか)や、「石見(いはみ)の海　角の浦廻(うらみ)を　浦なしと　人こそ見らめ　潟(かた)なしと　人こそ見らめ　よしゑやし　浦はなくとも　よしゑやし　潟はなくとも……」と石見の妻との別離の悲しみを切々と歌う長歌をみるのも海彼の文学の示唆を想像させる。反歌(はんか)が、長歌の内容の要約とか反復にとどまらず、長歌に詠まれている時間・空間の枠を超え、独立的傾向を強めたのも人麻呂からである。複数の反歌や短歌の間に連作的構成をみせるのは、儀礼の場を離れ、〈読む〉文学として享受されたことと関連するだろう。人麻呂はまた、自然であれ、人事であれ、対象と混然合一の境地にあるような歌を詠んでいる。これは第一期の特色とした自然との融即性と深くかかわると思われるが、そうした心情表現と開化の技法の微妙な調和も、彼以後にはみられなくなる。

　人麻呂と同時代の歌人として、天武天皇、持統天皇、大津皇子(おおつのみこ)、大伯皇女(おおくのひめみこ)、志貴(しき)皇子、穂積(ほづみ)皇子、但馬(たじま)皇女、高市(たけち)皇子、長(なが)皇子、弓削(ゆげ)皇子などの皇族および藤原夫人(ぶにん)、石川郎女(いらつめ)、志斐嫗(しひのおみな)、高市黒人(くろひと)、長意吉麻呂(ながのおきまろ)、春日老(かすがのおゆ)があげられる。とくに謀反事件で非業の死を遂げた大津皇子とその姉大伯皇女の悲歌、但馬皇女の異母兄穂積皇子に対する激しい恋の歌、高市黒人の「物恋しい」旅の歌、意吉麻呂の即興歌などが注目されよう。

［稲岡耕二］

第三期

奈良遷都から733年（天平5）まで。人麻呂退場後の和歌史にさまざまな個性の開花した時期である。唐の長安京に模した奈良の都において大陸文化の教養が重んぜられ、貴族や官人たちの間で漢籍の学習や漢詩文の述作も広く行われた。長屋王(ながやおう)を中心とする奈良詩壇に藤原房前(ふささき)、藤原宇合(うまかい)、安倍広庭(あべのひろにわ)、吉田宜(よしだのよろし)、背奈行文(せなのゆきふみ)など貴族や文人が蝟集(いしゅう)し、王の佐保(さほ)邸ではたびたび詩宴が催された。その詩には『文選(もんぜん)』や『玉台新詠』などの六朝(りくちょう)詩のみでなく初唐の王勃(おうぼつ)や駱賓王(らくひんおう)の詩と詩序の影響も指摘される。こうした中国文学の影響はやまと歌にも及び、第二期に比べ、発想や表現のうえに一段と明瞭(めいりょう)な形で表れるようになる。とりわけ注目されるのは、728年（神亀5）大宰帥(だざいのそち)となり九州に下向した大伴旅人(たびと)を中心に形成された筑紫(つくし)歌壇であった。山上憶良(やまのうえのおくら)、小野老(おののおゆ)、沙弥満誓(しゃみまんぜい)など多数の官人たちの共作によって初唐詩の詩序をもつ形式をやまと歌に適用した梅花(ばいか)歌群が詠まれ、さらに『遊仙窟(ゆうせんくつ)』や『文選』の「洛神賦(らくしんのふ)」に示唆を受け「松浦河(まつらがわ)」の歌序などがつくられたのも筑紫歌壇の特色ということができる。大伴旅人と山上憶良という、性格や人生観、文学観などが対蹠(たいせき)的な2人の筑紫における邂逅(かいこう)も文学史的に小さからぬ事件であった。浪漫(ろうまん)的空想的な旅人が嘆老・望郷の思いと「吾妹子(わぎもこ)が植ゑし梅の樹見る毎に情咽(こころむ)せつつ涙し流る」など亡妻思慕の情を流れるような調べにのせて歌ったのに対し、現実的論理的な憶良が「五月蠅(さばへ)なす　騒く児等を　うつてては　死には知らず　見つつあれば　心は燃えぬ　かにかくに　思ひわづらひ　哭(ね)のみし泣かゆ」のように老病貧死の苦を佶屈(きっくつ)な調べで歌っている。互いに相手を意識することで自己の特性をいっそう明確にしえたといえよう。

　中央の歌壇で人麻呂の賛歌的伝統を継承したのは、笠金村(かさのかなむら)、車持千年(くるまもちのちとせ)、山部赤人(やまべのあかひと)らであった。なかでも赤人は人麻呂の形式に学びつつ、洗練された感性によって叙景的な自然表現に特色を示した。赤人には屈折に富んだ知巧的な歌もあり、後の『古今集』の歌風に連なる一面をのぞかせている。こうした宮廷歌人とは別に、東国の地方官となった高橋虫麻呂(むしまろ)は藤原宇合の庇護(ひご)のもとで伝説や旅を歌って異彩を放った。

［稲岡耕二］

第四期

734年（天平6）以後、淳仁(じゅんにん)天皇の759年（天平宝字3）まで。東大寺の造営や大仏開眼なども行われ華やかな時代であったが、天平文化は爛熟(らんじゅく)し、政治のうえでも困難な事態に直面して上層部の政権争いの深刻化していった時期である。そうしたなかにあって歌人たちは繊細優美な歌を多く詠んだ。この期の作者として注目されるのは、大伴家持にかかわりの深い人たちである。家持との恋の贈答に哀切な佳品を残した笠女郎(かさのいらつめ)、技巧的な歌で若い家持を拝跪(はいき)せしめた感のある紀女郎(きのいらつめ)、そして大伴氏の家刀自(いえとじ)として祭神歌、怨恨(えんこん)歌、聖武(しょうむ)天皇への献歌など多彩な作品を残した大伴坂上郎女(さかのうえのいらつめ)など一群の女郎たちの歌は末期万葉の風雅を代表するもので、王朝女流作歌へつながる性格をもつ。男性では家持の越中守(えっちゅうのかみ)時代の歌友大伴池主(いけぬし)や、宮廷歌人の流れを受ける田辺福麻呂(さきまろ)などに作品が多い。そのほか736年（天平8）6月難波(なにわ)を出帆した遣新羅使人たちの歌145首や、越前(えちぜん)国に流罪となった中臣宅守(なかとみのやかもり)とその赦免を待つ狭野弟上娘子(さののおとがみのおとめ)との贈答歌63首、755年（天平勝宝7）の防人(さきもり)たちの歌など、宴席における遊戯的な歌の多いこの時期にあって率直な叙情が注目される。

　大伴家持の作品は733年（天平5）から759年（天平宝字3）に及ぶ。あえかな三日月に美人の眉(まゆ)を連想した少年期の歌から、越中守時代の地方生活と人麻呂や憶良の作品に学んだ多くの作歌体験を経て内面的な豊かさを加え、中国文学の示唆も得て独自の歌境をみせるに至る。とくに750年（天平勝宝2）3月の「春の苑紅(そのくれなゐ)にほふ桃の花下照る道に出で立つをと嬬(をとめ)」という春苑桃李(しゅんえんとうり)の歌と、751年7月少納言(しょうなごん)となって帰京後に春日の漠たる物思いを歌った3首など、高く評価される。また巻16以前に補訂を加えたのも家持の越中守時代以前かと推定され、『万葉集』の成立と伝来に果たした家持の役割の大きさをしのばせる。なお『万葉集』4500首余りの約3分の1に相当する1800首余りが作者未詳歌である。巻14の東歌(あずまうた)のほか、巻7、10、11、12、13などに多くみえるそれらの作品が滔々(とうとう)と流れる大河のごとく万葉の基層をなしていたことも忘れてはならないだろう。

［稲岡耕二］

本質と影響

『万葉集』は古代律令国家の形成期に編まれた歌集であり、文学史的にいえば口誦の歌謡から記載の叙情歌の生み出された原初期の作品の集成である。天皇・皇后と皇族・貴族はもちろん、階層的に低い一般民衆の歌まで含んでいるために、古代の人々のもっていた勃興(ぼっこう)的で意欲的なエネルギーに触れることができる。いいかえると繊弱な美の濾過(ろか)を経ないはつらつとした生命の息吹に接しうるわけで、その点に『万葉集』の本質が認められるだろう。『古今集』以後の歌と比較した場合に、しばしば素朴・稚拙(ちせつ)などの評語が与えられるのもむしろ当然といわねばならない。中世以降において和歌の歴史の行き詰まったときにつねに『万葉集』が顧みられ、万葉調の復興が唱導されたのも、このような『万葉集』のもつ清新なエネルギーを糧(かて)として、衰弱した歌の力を取り戻すことが求められたのだといえる。

［稲岡耕二］

伝来・研究

951年（天暦5）に『万葉集』の歌に付けられた訓(くん)を古点とよび、このとき訓(よ)み残された歌にのちに付けられた平安時代の訓を次点という。平安時代の古写本中最古の桂宮(かつらのみや)家旧蔵の桂宮本万葉集には古点のおもかげが残され、その後の書写になる藍紙(らんし)本、元暦(げんりゃく)校本、金沢本、天治本、尼崎(あまがさき)本、類聚(るいじゅう)古集などは次点を伝える。次点本で『万葉集』20巻のそろった写本は現存しない。新点は、鎌倉時代中期に仙覚(せんがく)が諸写本を校合し訓と本文を改めた際、古点と次点の訓の付けられなかったすべての歌に施された訓であり、西本願寺本はそれを伝える最古の20巻そろった完本で、現在多くの注釈書の本文校訂の底本に利用されている。ほかに鎌倉時代末期から室町時代にかけて書写された紀州本があり、のちに神宮文庫本、細井本、温故堂本、大矢本、京都大学本、金沢文庫本などもみえ、江戸時代になると活字本や木版本も出回るようになった。それらの伝本のすべてに目を通すことは容易でないため、諸本の文字の異同を示して集成したものが1924年（大正13）から翌年にかけて出版された佐佐木信綱他編『校本万葉集』である。

　注釈書のもっとも古いものは仙覚の『万葉集註釈』で、1269年（文永6）の完成。その後、由阿(ゆうあ)の『詞林采葉抄(しりんさいようしょう)』があり、近世には北村季吟(きぎん)の『万葉拾穂(しゅうすい)抄』（1690）、下河辺長流(しもこうべちょうりゅう)の『万葉集管見』（1661？）、契沖(けいちゅう)の『万葉代匠記(だいしょうき)』（初稿本1688、精撰本1690）、賀茂真淵(まぶち)の『万葉集考』と『冠辞(かんじ)考』、荷田春満(かだあずままろ)の『万葉集僻案(へきあん)抄』と春満の講義を弟信名(のぶな)が筆録した『万葉童蒙(どうもう)抄』、本居宣長(もとおりのりなが)『万葉集玉の小琴(おごと)』、荒木田久老(ひさおゆ)『万葉集槻落葉(つきのおちば)』、橘千蔭(たちばなちかげ)『万葉集略解(りゃくげ)』、岸本由豆流(ゆずる)『万葉集考証』、橘守部(もりべ)『万葉集墨縄(すみなわ)』と『万葉集檜嬬手(ひのつまで)』、富士谷御杖(みつえ)『万葉集燈(ともしび)』、香川景樹(かげき)『万葉集捃解(くんかい)』、鹿持雅澄(かもちまさずみ)『万葉集古義』などがまとめられた。明治以後になるとアララギ派の歌人による『万葉集』の唱導と批評の活発化に伴い研究もいっそう盛んになった。木村正辞(まさこと)『万葉集美夫君志(みふぐし)』、井上通泰(みちやす)『万葉集新考』のほか、橋本進吉・佐伯梅友(さえきうめとも)らによる国語学的研究、折口信夫(おりくちしのぶ)の民俗学的研究、岡崎義恵(よしえ)・高木市之助の文芸論的研究、北島葭江(よしえ)らによる風土地理研究まで多彩な研究が行われ、第二次世界大戦後の研究のための足場が築かれた。

［稲岡耕二］

『高木市之助・五味智英・大野晋校注『日本古典文学大系4～7　万葉集』（1957～1962・岩波書店）』▽『小島憲之・木下正俊・佐竹昭広校注『日本古典文学全集2～5　万葉集』（1971～1975・小学館）』▽『青木生子他校注『新潮日本古典集成　万葉集』5冊（1976～1984・新潮社）』▽『中西進編訳『万葉集』4冊（講談社文庫）』▽『五味智英著『増補古代和歌』（1987・笠間書院）』▽『伊藤博著『万葉集の構造と成立』上下（1975・塙書房）』▽『大久保正編『日本文学全史1　上代』（1978・学燈社）』▽『稲岡耕二著『万葉表記論』（1976・塙書房）』▽『大久保正著『万葉集の研究史』（『和歌文学講座12』所収・1970・桜楓社）』▽『稲岡耕二編『万葉集必携』（1981・学燈社）』