Tragedy - Higeki

Japanese: 悲劇 - ひげき

It is a translation of tragedy (English), tragedie (French), and Trauerspiel (German). It originates from the ancient Greek tragedy tragoidía. This word is a combination of the root tragos, meaning goat, and oide, meaning song. There are various theories about its origin, such as (1) that goats were sacrificed, (2) that goats were the prize in contests, and (3) that the original choirs were dressed as goats. According to Aristotle's Poetics, tragoidía originated from the dance form "dityrambos" that sang in praise of gods and heroes, from which actors were created and the number of actors increased to three, and its theme is derived from Homer's epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey." In the early 20th century, under the influence of Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy, a theory was put forward that the ritual of the suffering and rebirth of the god Dionysus, the "spirit of the year," was the origin of Greek tragedy. Although it has been countered that there is no conclusive evidence, the theory that "ritual = tragedy" is still widely advocated today.

[Mori Mitsuya]

Definition of Tragedy

In his Poetics, Aristotle defined that tragedy is more philosophical than historical, that it introduces characters superior to those around us, and that it achieves catharsis (emotional purification) by evoking fear and pity. Aristotle considered it good for the ending to be unhappy, but he did not consider it essential to tragedy. In fact, there are many Greek tragedies that end happily.

However, after the Renaissance, vulgar conventions became common, such as tragedies being stories about royalty and nobility, ending with the misfortune (death) of the protagonist, and being solemn and sublime plays that appeal to emotions rather than intellect. In addition to the unity of plot encouraged in the Poetics, the law of the three unities (three unities, three singularities), which states that the events must take place within a day and in a fixed location, was mistakenly believed to be Aristotle's view and was considered absolute, especially in France.

However, in the 18th century, tragedies of ordinary people began to be written, and the concept of tragedy began to become confused. Romanticism at the end of the 18th century looked up to the unconventional Shakespeare as a model. In his Lectures on Aesthetics, Hegel defined the clash between two equally valid opposing principles as the basis of tragedy, and considered Sophocles' Antigone, which has the conflict between the principle of state and the principle of blood ties, to be the greatest tragedy. Later, theories were put forward that see crisis and tension as the source of tragedy, and it has also become common to see expressions of a tragic worldview in literary genres other than theater, such as Melville's Moby Dick and Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov. In addition to formalism, there are also idealistic theories that say that one realizes the value of life through suffering or predicts salvation beyond the collapse of the world, realistic theories that face the irrationality of the real world, and existentialist views of tragedy that dare to take responsibility for one's own life.

[Mori Mitsuya]

Types of tragedies

A distinction is often made between fate tragedies and character tragedies, but this is merely a convenient distinction. For example, Sophocles' Oedipus Rex is a fate tragedy if we consider the innocent Oedipus to be toyed with by fate, but a character tragedy if we see his downfall as being due to his arrogant behavior. In modern times, the terms bourgeois tragedies are used for plays with common people as protagonists, and family tragedies for those dealing with domestic issues such as parent-child or marital relationships. Tragedies that merely induce tears are sometimes derogatory and called melodramas today. Today, the term "serious drama" has become common as a counter term to comedy.

[Mori Mitsuya]

Tragic History of the West

The history of Western theater began in Athens, Greece, but Thespis, who lived in the 6th century BC and is said to be the first actor, was also a tragic playwright. Of course, none of his works remain. The only surviving works are those of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, all poets from the 5th century BC. Thanks to these poets, tragedy reached its peak shortly after its history began. From the Roman period, the only works that remain are those of Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD), but they are said to have been close to adaptations of Greek tragedies and were intended for recitation.

Medieval religious dramas were not essentially tragic, and the history of tragedy reached a second peak with the appearance of Shakespeare in England at the end of the 16th century. The foundation for this was laid by Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Kyd, who created their own tragedies without any awareness of classical tradition. Conversely, Corneille and Racine, from France, where theater flourished in the mid-17th century, sought a model in classical drama and reached a different peak. They established French classical tragedy in a climate that valued the law of three unities (in recent years, 17th century art in general is sometimes considered to be Baroque art, and in that case French classical theater is also called Baroque, which is supposed to be the opposite concept in style). From the 18th century, melodrama and sentimental drama became popular with the collapse of the concept of tragedy, but Germans such as Lessing, Goethe, Schiller, and Kleist explored the possibilities of new modern tragedy. This was followed by the 19th century bourgeois tragedies, as represented by Hebbel's Maria Magdalena (1846), and the "naturalistic tragedies" of Ibsen and Strindberg. However, these two writers show a tendency towards tragicomedy rather than pure tragedy, and this tendency becomes even more pronounced in Chekhov. Furthermore, in modern tragedy, where prose has become the normal means of expression, there is no need to expect the solemnity of classical tragedy written in verse. Some believe that modern rational thought has erased our sense of the mysticism of the world, and that the loss of God has resulted in a confusion of values, making true tragedy impossible.

[Mori Mitsuya]

Japan's Tragedy

The Western definition of tragedy as a solemn drama with a king or aristocrat as the protagonist would be met by the Noh plays of asuramono and delusional women's dramas, as well as period pieces of Bunraku puppet theatre and Kabuki. Chikamatsu's double suicide stories would fall into the category of bourgeois tragedies, and the kizewamono (life-threatening dramas) that were popular in Kabuki at the end of the Edo period and focused on murder scenes might also be considered tragedies. However, the Japanese literary tradition is centered on lyrical beautification of the suffering and death of life, and there are almost no cases where it has the ideology and foresight to give a glimpse of a new world view. Even if there are characters with strong personalities, there is a lack of plot thought that develops their actions. If it is possible to find ideology and a tragic worldview that go beyond lyric expression in Chikamatsu's works that depict a man and woman who commit double suicide out of obligation and human feelings, then this is a task for the future. Even after the Meiji period, the "tearjerker" plays known as Shinpa tragedies continued to dominate, which may be because the Japanese, as a national character, dislike true fundamental conflicts and have a tendency to rely on one another without facing reality. Western tragedies, so to speak, clearly show the true essence of "drama," and the fact that there were no such tragedies in Japan suggests a difference in the theatrical views between the two countries.

[Mori Mitsuya]

"The Genealogy of Tragedy: From Sophocles to Eliot" by C. Brooks, translated by Kenji Oba et al. (1981, Shiseido) " "Tragedy" by E. Dowden, translated by Kazuo Irie (Shakespeare Studies Series 8, 1979, Arataka Publishing) " "The Birth of Tragic Literature" by Susumu Tsukasaki (1983, Ohfusha)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

トラジディtragedy（英語）、トラジェディtragédie（フランス語）、トラウアシュピールTrauerspiel（ドイツ語）などの訳語。古代ギリシアの悲劇トラゴイディアtragoidíaが起源。この語は、山羊(やぎ)の意のトラゴスtragosの語幹と歌の意のオイデoideが合体したことばで、その由来は、〔1〕山羊が生贄(いけにえ)にされた、〔2〕山羊が競演の賞品であった、〔3〕発生時の舞唱団は山羊の扮装(ふんそう)をしていた、などの諸説があり、確定されない。アリストテレスの『詩学』によれば、トラゴイディアは、神や英雄を賛歌する舞唱形式「ディティランボス」を源とし、そこから俳優が成立してその数を3人まで増やし、主題上はホメロスの叙事詩『イリアス』『オデュッセイア』に負うという。20世紀初めに、ニーチェの『悲劇の誕生』の影響下に、「年の霊」であるディオニソス神の受苦と再生の祭事がギリシア悲劇の母胎であったとする説が出され、確証はないという反論もなされたが、今日も「祭式＝悲劇」説は広く唱えられている。

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悲劇の定義

アリストテレスは『詩学』で、悲劇は歴史より哲学的であり、われわれの周りの人間より優れた人物を登場させ、恐怖と哀れみを惹起(じゃっき)してカタルシス（感情の浄化）を達成すると規定した。アリストテレスは結末が不幸に終わるのをよしとはしたが、悲劇に必須(ひっす)とは考えていない。事実、ギリシア悲劇でめでたく終わる作品は少なくない。

　しかしルネサンス以降、悲劇は王侯貴族の物語で、主人公の不幸（死）で終わり、知より情に訴える荘重な劇、崇高な劇といった卑俗な規定が一般的となる。また、『詩学』で奨励された筋の単一性に加えて、事件は1日以内のこと、場所は一定たるべしという、三一致（三統一、三単一）の法則が、アリストテレスの見解として誤って信じられ、とくにフランスで絶対視された。

　しかし18世紀には庶民の悲劇も書かれだし、悲劇概念の混乱が始まる。18世紀末のロマン主義は、非法則的なシェークスピアを模範と仰いだ。ヘーゲルはその『美学講義』で、同等に正当な二つの対立原理の衝突を悲劇の基盤と規定し、国家原理と血族原理の対立を主題とするソフォクレスの『アンティゴネ』を最高の悲劇としている。その後、危機、緊張などを悲劇の源泉とする説なども出され、また、演劇以外の文学ジャンルに悲劇的な世界観の表現をみることも一般的となっている。メルビルの『白鯨』、ドストエフスキーの『カラマーゾフの兄弟』などである。悲劇観には形式論以外に、苦悩を通して人生価値を悟るとか、世界崩壊のかなたに救済を予測するとかいった理想主義的な論と、現実世界の不合理性を直視するという現実主義的な論とともに、自己の生をあえて身に引き受けてゆく実存主義的悲劇観もある。

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悲劇の種類

運命悲劇と性格悲劇の区別がよくなされるが、便宜的なものにすぎない。たとえば、ソフォクレスの『オイディプス王』は、無実のオイディプスが運命にもてあそばれる劇とみれば運命悲劇であり、彼の傲慢(ごうまん)な言動に没落の原因をみれば性格悲劇となる。近代の庶民が主人公となるものは市民悲劇、親子や夫婦関係など家庭内の問題を扱うものには家庭悲劇の名称も使われる。単に涙を誘うだけの悲劇を今日ではメロドラマとよんでおとしめる場合もある。今日は、喜劇に対置される用語として、「真面目な劇」serious dramaの名称が一般的になっている。

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西洋の悲劇の歴史

西洋演劇の歴史は古代ギリシアのアテナイ（アテネ）に始まるが、最初の俳優とされる紀元前6世紀のテスピスは悲劇作家でもあった。むろん作品は残らない。作品が現存するのはアイスキロス、ソフォクレス、エウリピデスのみで、ともに前5世紀の詩人。彼らによって悲劇は歴史が始まってまもなく最高峰に達してしまった。ローマ期で作品が残るのはセネカ（前4～後65）のみだが、ギリシア悲劇の翻案に近く、朗読用だったともされる。

　中世宗教劇は本質的に悲劇性をもたず、16世紀末イギリスにシェークスピアが登場して悲劇の歴史は二つ目の峰を形づくる。この土壌をつくったのは、クリストファ・マーロウ、トマス・キッドらの、古典の伝統を意識しない独自の悲劇である。逆に古典劇に範を求めて別の峰に達したのが、17世紀なかばに演劇が開花したフランスのコルネイユとラシーヌである。彼らは三一致の法則を重んじる風潮のなかでフランス古典主義悲劇を確立した（近年は17世紀の芸術全般をバロック芸術と想定する場合があり、そのときはフランス古典主義演劇が、様式上反対概念であるはずのバロックの名でよばれもする）。18世紀から、悲劇概念の崩壊とともにメロドラマ、センチメンタル・ドラマの流行をみるが、ドイツのレッシング、ゲーテ、シラー、クライストらが近代の新しい悲劇の可能性を探求する。そこにヘッベルの『マリア・マグダレーナ』（1846）に代表される19世紀の市民悲劇がつながり、イプセン、ストリンドベリらの「自然主義悲劇」へと続く。しかしこれら2人には、純粋の悲劇性よりも悲喜劇的傾向がうかがわれ、チェーホフに至って、それはいっそうはっきりする。また、散文が通常の表現手段となった近代悲劇に、韻文で書かれた古典悲劇の荘重さは求むべくもない。近代の合理思想は世界の神秘性に対するわれわれの感覚を消滅させ、神の喪失が価値基準の混乱を結果させたために、本来の悲劇は不可能になったとする考えもある。

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日本の悲劇

西洋の、王侯貴族を主人公とした荘重な劇という悲劇規定に合致するのは、能の修羅物や女物の妄執劇とか、人形浄瑠璃(じょうるり)や歌舞伎(かぶき)の時代物であろう。近松の心中物などはさしずめ市民悲劇の範疇(はんちゅう)に入るだろうし、幕末の歌舞伎で好まれた殺し場を中心にした生世話(きぜわ)物も、どちらかといえば悲劇とみられるかもしれない。しかし日本の文芸伝統では、人生の苦悩や死を叙情的に美化することが主であり、そこから新しい世界像をかいまみさせるだけの思想性と先見性をもつ場合はほとんどない。強烈な個性をもつ人物はいても、その行動を発展させる筋立ての思考にも欠ける。もし、義理と人情ゆえに心中する男女を描く近松の作品に叙情的表現以上の思想性と悲劇的世界観を探ることができるとすれば、それは今後の課題である。明治以後も、新派悲劇とよばれる「お涙頂戴(ちょうだい)」劇が中心を占めるのは、日本人は国民性として真の原理的対立を好まず、現実を直視せずに互いに甘えをよしとする性向をもつからだとも考えられよう。西洋の悲劇はいわば「ドラマ」の本質を明示するものであり、日本にこうした悲劇がなかったことは、彼我の演劇観の相違を示唆するものであるといえる。

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『C・ブルックス著、大場建治他訳『悲劇の系譜――ソポクレスからエリオットまで』（1981・至誠堂）』▽『E・ダウデン著、入江和生訳『悲劇論』（『シェイクスピア論シリーズ8』1979・荒竹出版）』▽『塚崎進著『悲劇文学の誕生』（1983・桜楓社）』

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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