The canonical book of Christianity. The English word Bible comes from the Greek word biblos, which means the core of papyrus, the raw material for paper in ancient times. A scroll of this papyrus with writing on it was called a biblion, which came to mean a book. The plural of this word was Latinized to biblia, which came to mean specifically the sacred book. The Bible has the Old Testament and the New Testament, and the "Testament" in both is a letter that means "covenant." In the scene of Christ's Last Supper, it is stated that the blood of the cross becomes the new covenant between God and mankind. The books concerning Christ's new covenant are called the "New Testament," and what were the Jewish scriptures became the "Old Testament" as books of preparation for Christ the Savior, and together they became the Christian canon. [Michio Akashi] The Old Testament
[Michio Akashi] History of IsraelIn order to understand the process by which each book of the Old Testament was created and its structure, it is necessary to understand the historical background. In the 13th century BC, the Hebrew tribes, who had been slaves in Egypt, escaped from Egypt under the leadership of Moses, seeking a land of liberation in Canaan. To accomplish this difficult task, Moses preached that they should worship Yahweh, the God of their common ancestors Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, as the only God, and that Yahweh would give them the land of Canaan, as a specially chosen people, Israel, as promised to his ancestors, thus laying the foundations of national monotheism and the belief in a chosen people. Moses died just before Jericho, the largest oasis city in the south, on the opposite bank of the Jordan River, but his will was inherited by Joshua, who crossed the Jordan River and set out to conquer Canaan. The twelve tribes of Israel, working together under their respective leaders, the judges, conquered the natives, and divided the entire region of Canaan into separate tribes and settled there. This was the period of the judges from the 12th to 11th centuries BC. Around this time, the Philistines invaded from the west bank, and Canaan came to be called the land of the Philistines - Palestine. To counter this, the emergence of a king to rule over all the tribes was desired, and the religious alliance of the twelve tribes became a nation under King Saul. Saul was defeated in battle and committed suicide after 11 years of reign, and the throne was passed on to David. This was around 1000 BC. David defeated the Philistines and conquered all of Canaan, establishing a unified Israeli dynasty. King Solomon succeeded this stable kingdom of Israel and demonstrated his skill in both domestic and foreign affairs, ruling for 40 years from around 960 BC. He built the temple and royal palace in Jerusalem, and constructed heavily fortified cities throughout the country. However, after Solomon's death, Israel's golden age during these two generations was broken down into the Southern Kingdom of Judah and the Northern Kingdom of Israel due to a struggle for succession to the throne, and the nation's power gradually weakened. In 721 BC, Assyria occupied Northern Israel. Babylonia, which rose to power in place of Assyria, destroyed Southern Judah in 586 BC. Jerusalem was destroyed, and many of the people of Judah were taken captive and taken to Babylonia. This is known as the "Babylonian Captivity," and it marked a major turning point in the religious history of Israel. In 538 BC, Persia, which replaced Babylonia in expanding its territory into the Mediterranean world, released the Jewish captives and allowed them to return home. Even after the fall of Persia in 331 BC, the Ptolemy dynasty of early Greek Egypt protected Judaism. However, after 202 BC, the Seleucid dynasty of Syria persecuted Judaism, and around 160 BC, Judea established the Hasmonean dynasty after a war of independence. However, in 63 BC, it was occupied by Rome, leading to the time of Jesus. [Michio Akashi] The structure of the Old Testament and the creation of each bookThe Old Testament consists of the Law, the Prophets, and the Books. The Law refers to the first five books of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Genesis contains the story of the creation of the world, the legends of Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Noah, and the Tower of Babel, and is composed of stories of the ancestors of Israel and the 12 patriarchs. From the second book, Exodus, to the fifth book, Deuteronomy, the laws given by God through Moses at Mount Sinai and other places are compiled between Moses' birth and death. Therefore, these five books are called the Pentateuch or the Law of Moses, and became the first canon of Judaism around 400 B.C. The traditions of Genesis and Exodus are mainly composed of materials named Jahwist (abbreviation J), which refers to God's name as Yahweh, and Elohist (abbreviation E), which refers to God's name as Elohim; the former was established in the mid-10th century BC, and the latter in the mid-8th century BC. J is based on ethnic beliefs, while E adds an ethical religious view to this. The Ten Commandments of Moses and the Book of the Covenant, found in chapters 20-23 of Exodus, were written by the author of E. In 621 BC, King Josiah established the Deuteronomium (D), which was placed in chapters 5-25 and 28 of Deuteronomy. "Leviticus" and "Numbers" are the "Priester Kodex" (P), compiled by the priests around 500 B.C. The author of this book was the editor of the entire law, and wrote each part of the Pentateuch. Thus, "The Law" is composed of four documents, J, E, D, and P. The prophetic books were compiled by around 300 B.C. and became the second scripture of Judaism. The three major prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, the 12 minor prophets including Hosea, and the four books placed before them at the time of compilation, Joshua, Judges, the first and second books of Samuel, and the first and second books of Kings, were considered the preprophets, and together they were made into the holy scriptures under the names of the prophets. In Israel, a prophet was a leader who received the word of God and conveyed it to the people. Moses and Samuel were called such. These 15 prophets, whose words were recorded and included in the Bible, are called the "Canonical Prophets". Amos appeared around 760 B.C., and sharply criticized the social disorder in Israel and Judah, and preached God's punishment. While ethnic beliefs simply believed that Yahweh would help the people of Israel, Amos preached that since God is a righteous God, His people must also be righteous, and that the way to worship God is not through rituals but through practicing justice in the world. In this way, the pre-exilic prophets, starting with Amos, Hosea, Micah, Isaiah, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, and others, gave religion a clear ethical character, which became the second characteristic of Judaism. Only Nahum and Habakkuk promoted ethnic beliefs and prophesied Yahweh's help in international crises. Ezekiel prophesied before and during the captivity, and although he was a descendant of Amos, he encouraged the Jewish people during the captivity. The captivity shook the national faith, and many Jews left the faith of Yahweh. The prophecies of the Second Isaiah, contained in chapters 40 to 55 of the Book of Isaiah, are prophecies of comfort and encouragement, teaching that Yahweh's salvation is promised by maintaining a righteous life. Among them is the song called the "Song of the Suffering Servant," which is considered a prophecy of Christ in Christianity because of the idea that the people's suffering is the suffering of atonement. The post-exilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi criticized the social evils in the new Judea after the exile, but also encouraged the restoration of Jerusalem. Among the books of the early prophets, the Book of Joshua combines the story of Joshua, the successor of Moses, with the tales of ancient heroes, and the history of the judge era is more reliable based on the Book of Judges, which is a compilation of records centered on the judges of each tribe. The Song of Deborah in Chapter 5 of Judges is a song written by an eyewitness to an actual battle around 1150 B.C., and is one of the oldest documents in the Old Testament. The Book of Samuel tells the story of Saul and David, who were anointed as kings by Samuel, the spiritual leader of the 12 tribes, and the Book of Kings is a record of the kings after Solomon. After the Solomon era, dynasties established secretariats, and the historical credibility of these books, along with the legends of David, is high. These four historical books are called Deuteronomist, historians within the school that created the Deuteronomistic Law, and are based on a historical perspective that reflects the ethics of the prophets. The remaining books, called the "Writings," were created after the exile and were used in temples and synagogues, but they were not considered canonical in Judaism until after the Christian era. The order of the Japanese Bible is different from the Jewish order of "Law," "Prophets," and "Writings." This order comes from the order in which the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek in the Hellenistic world in the 3rd century BCE. This translation was said to have been done by 72 scholars and was called the Septuaginta. It includes the "Old Testament Apocrypha" and "Pseudo-Scriptures" that were later removed from the canon. The Christian church created the Latin translation, the "Vulgate Bible," based on the Septuagint, and this determined the order of the "Old Testament" in the Christian church. After the captivity, Judea became a religious state under the Persian and early Greek policies of protecting Judaism, and developed with the high priest as its head. This can be seen in the determination of the canon through the compilation of the Law and the Prophets, and the creation of a wide variety of religious documents. Among the prophets, the Book of Joel, the Book of Obadiah, the Book of Jonah, and the Book of Zechariah have a strong literary character. The Book of Ruth is a literary story. The first and second books of Chronicles, the Book of Ezra, and the Book of Nehemiah are a series of compilations by historians of the 4th century BCE called Chroniclers. The Chronicles re-edit the history before the exile with a new historical perspective, and continue until the end of the exile. The achievements of the successive kings are reviewed and reflected upon in a penitential historical manner, from the perspective of whether they were faithful to God or rebelled against Him. The pacifist and anti-war stance after the exile is also well shown in the treatment of David. It is said that the reason why this greatest king of Israel did not build a temple was because of the shedding of so much blood, and that the temple would be built by King Solomon, who lived in a time of "peace and tranquility" (1 Chronicles 22:6-10). Ezra and Nehemiah were a literary scholar and a governor who returned from Persia in the middle of the 5th century BCE, and it was these two who established Judaism as an organized religion (444 BCE). The notes of these two men were used as sources for the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The Books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes are known as wisdom literature. After the captivity, the center of Judaism was the priests. However, they became an aristocratic class and became estranged from the people. At this time, people called "teachers of wisdom" emerged from the intellectual class of ordinary believers, built synagogues throughout the country in addition to the temple, and became leaders of the general Jewish people. On the one hand, Judaism reached its maturity under the protective policy of the occupiers. However, this policy was intended to keep Judaism at peace in the constantly unstable international situation of the Mediterranean world. Under the occupation of a foreign country, and especially with the military traffic between Persia, Egypt, and Greece, which were on either side of Judea, the lives of the people were oppressed, and while people who left their faith and became secularized prospered, devout Jews suffered misfortune. Doubts like this clouded the hearts of the Jews: why would God torment such a righteous believer? The Book of Job is a dialogue-poetry drama that focuses on the suffering of the "perfectly righteous" Job. This skepticism reaches its extreme in Ecclesiastes, which begins with the words, "Vanity of vanities, vanity of vanities, all is vanity." Pessimism and nihilism that seem alien to the Jewish and Christian Bibles were written in this document by a "teacher of wisdom" who sought to win the hearts of the people. The "Proverbs" are a collection of proverbs from all over the world, past and present, that teach wisdom, modesty, and good manners, stating that righteous and pious people must know the wisdom of the world and the way of life in order to be happy. The reason that the "Proverbs" and "Ecclesiastes" bear the name of Solomon is because Solomon was considered a wise king, and because it was believed that human wisdom was bestowed by God through Solomon. The Psalms are one of the many literary forms that emerged after the exile, along with the Song of Songs and Lamentations. The 150 poems were compiled three times between the Persian and Greek periods, combining poems from before the exile with new songs, and in the late Greek period they were compiled into five parts following the Pentateuch. Many of these are attributed to David, as he is considered the king of song and music. The Psalms are hymns sung by the choir in the temple, and many of the early ones, especially, were originally sung in synagogues and then adopted for temple worship. Many of the first compilation (Psalms 3-41) are called "laments," which appeal to God about the suffering of the righteous and pious Jewish common people, as summarized in the Book of Job. As the second (42-89) and third (90-150) editions were compiled, the number of songs of trust and thanksgiving, as well as prophetic and wisdom literature songs, increased. This corresponds to the flow of Jewish spiritual history, which sought to teach and admonish believers about the wavering faith of believers and to strengthen their trust in God. The "teachers of wisdom" produced a group of legalistic scholars, who began to compose legalistic songs praising the law. The final compiler placed a legalistic song at the beginning and concluded the final five pieces with the poem Hallelujah (Praise Yahweh). The Book of Daniel is a typical example of apocalyptic literature. The prophets of the Old Testament tended to preach about God's judgment at the end of the world, but this was not connected to a view of the afterlife. Israelite thought is inherently a secularist, which is rare in the history of religion. However, the persecution of Judaism by the Seleucid dynasty in the late Greek period caused believers to abandon pacifism, and at the same time helped form a Persian view of the end of the world in religious thought. In other words, it is a view of the world as ruled by evil, which will end and be replaced by a new rule by God. The Book of Daniel is the last book of the Old Testament, and was written in the form of apocalyptic literature in about 165 B.C. under the oppression of the Seleucid dynasty, with a view to the salvation of the Jews and an apocalyptic view of the end of the world. Revelation means a secret revelation from God in the Babylonian and Persian eras. In the revelation to the righteous and wise Daniel, a vision was revealed that escaped the eyes of the rulers in the form of an interpretation of dreams, but which expressed the hopes of the Jews. The Book of Daniel is the first to depict the image of the Messiah, the coming king of the nation. Other apocalyptic literary expressions in the Old Testament include the later additions to the Book of Zechariah and the additions to the Book of Joel. There is a lot of apocalyptic literature in the Apocrypha and Pseudo-Scriptures, from the Old Testament to the New Testament. [Michio Akashi] The New Testament
[Michio Akashi] GospelsIt can be said that the first four books in the New Testament are the only books that tell of Jesus' words and deeds. They are called "Gospels" because they record the happy message of the Kingdom of God that Jesus, the Savior, brought to people. Of these, the "Gospel of Matthew," "Gospel of Mark," and "Gospel of Luke" are called the "Synoptic Gospels." This is because they use common sources and tell the course of Jesus' life from a common perspective, from his missionary work in Galilee to his death in Jerusalem. However, the Gospels are not biographies, but were written with the purpose of preaching that Jesus is the Christ, based on Jesus' words and deeds, and each handles the materials from a different perspective. The Synoptic Gospels use Urmarkus as the source for the oldest "Gospel of Mark," which was adopted by both Matthew and Luke. In addition, Matthew and Luke share a common source material, a collection of sayings by Jesus called Quelle (abbreviated as Q in Evangelical studies), and in addition to this, Matthew and Luke each have their own unique materials called M and L, which are known as the four-source theory. These materials were compiled from a Jewish perspective in Matthew's case, and from a Hellenistic interpretation in Luke's case. Furthermore, oral sources handed down by Jesus' direct disciples are presumed to be the basis for the four aforementioned sources. Formgeschichte, a historical study of the style of narrative based on each "seat of life" (Sitz im Leben), took Gospel studies a step further in the 20th century. While the Synoptic Gospels were written between 60 and 70 AD, the Gospel of John was written at the beginning of the 2nd century, when Christianity had taken root in Europe and the church system was beginning to take shape. John, a leader of the early church, compiled a story of Jesus' activities based on the Synoptic Gospels and the words of John, a direct disciple of his teacher, Jesus, and at the base of his work was the belief in eternal life through Christ, the Son of God, as the incarnation of God. In a sense, it can be said to preach the theology of the early church. The Acts of the Apostles is a record of the missionary work of Jesus' apostles, written by the author of the Gospel of Luke. Luke traveled with Paul on missionary journeys, and the latter half of the book vividly reports on the deeds of Paul that he witnessed or heard directly from him. The first half tells of the missionary work of the first Palestinian church, focusing on Peter, John, and James, but this section, based on secondhand hearsay, has a strong religious overtone, such as the "inspiration of the Spirit." [Michio Akashi] Structure of the New Testament"The Epistles of Paul"Paul was born in Tarsus in Asia Minor, held Roman citizenship, and acquired Hellenistic education. However, as a Jew, he belonged to the sect of the Pharisee and was a pioneer in persecuting Christians, who were considered to be blasphemous to the law. He was converted after seeing a vision of Jesus, and thereafter dedicated himself to evangelizing the Gentiles from Asia Minor to Europe, and through his three missionary missions under persecution, he developed Christianity into a world religion in the Mediterranean world. Thirteen letters addressed to Christians in his field are included in the New Testament under his name. Of these, the four major letters, "Romans," "Corinthians (First and Second Epistles)," and "Galatians," as well as "Epistle to the Thessalonians (First Epistle)," "Epistle to the Philippians," "Epistle to the Colossians," and "Epistle to Philemon," are clearly considered to be genuine works of Paul. The Epistle to the Thessalonians and the Epistle to the Thessalonians (Second Epistle) are questionable, and the Epistle to the Hebrews was clearly written by someone with very different ideas from Paul. Of these, the Epistle to the Ephesians, the Epistle to the Philippians, the Epistle to the Colossians, and the Epistle to the Philemon are known as the Prison Epistles. The oldest of Paul's letters is the Epistle to the Thessalonians, which is older than the Gospels and dates from around AD 50, during the early period of Paul's ministry. [Michio Akashi] "Pastoral Letters"The three letters, "First and Second Epistles to Timothy" and "Epistle to Titus," have been called "Pastoral Epistles" since the 18th century because they deal with admonitions about the order of meetings. They are addressed to Timothy and Titus, who were evangelists with Paul. There are many doubts as to whether these are genuine letters from Paul. In any case, however, it is certain that they were written later than the other letters of Paul. [Michio Akashi] "Public Letter"The seven letters that have been called "Catholic Epistles" since the 4th century and were addressed to many churches, not to individual churches, are the Epistle of James, the First and Second Epistles of Peter, the First, Second and Third Epistles of John, and the Epistle of Jude. These are named after Jude, a direct disciple of Jesus and the brother of James, but their authenticity is doubtful. However, they are valuable sources because they provide information on the development of the early Christian church from the end of the 1st century to the 2nd century and the ideological development of early Christianity. The First, Second, and Third Epistles of John are thought to have been written by John the Elder, the writer of the Gospel of John, or by a fellow disciple of the Apostle John. They link the atonement of Christ with the love of God the Father shown in Christ, His Son, suggesting that the seeds of the central idea of Christianity were already emerging in this period. [Michio Akashi] "The Book of Revelation"Apocalyptic literature is often found in the Old Testament Apocrypha and Pseudo-Scriptures after the Book of Daniel in the Old Testament. It was written in metaphorical and fantastical terms in the hope of salvation for Jews under the oppression of foreign nations. When Christianity was under persecution by Rome from the end of the 1st century, this form was adopted and the Book of Revelation was written in the form of a mysterious revelation from God. It describes the second coming of Christ on the last day. It became the basis for later Christian belief in the second coming. [Michio Akashi] The Creation of the New TestamentThe New Testament in its current form was established as a canonical scripture by Athanasius (c. 296-373) in the 4th century. However, it is clear from the writings of the Church Fathers that the authority of the Four Gospels had already been established by the end of the 2nd century. The Muratorian Canon also contains a list of the Bibles used by the Roman Church around 200. This includes the Four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the 13 Epistles of Paul, the Epistle of Jude, the First and Second Epistles of John, and the Book of Revelation. [Michio Akashi] Bible manuscripts and translations
The Old Testament was translated into Latin by the Roman Catholic Church based on the Greek translation, the Septuagint, but a revised translation based on Hebrew manuscripts was completed in 405 AD. The original texts of the books of the New Testament are written in Greek, but no original texts remain. Based on the many manuscripts that have been handed down, and by referring to ancient translations and quotations from the Church Fathers, the work of restoring the originals has continued throughout the long history of the Church, and continues to this day. The most widely used versions today are the Nestle-Aland edition (25th edition, 1963) and the Tasker edition (1964). There are over 5,000 Greek manuscripts, including fragments, divided into papyrus, capital, and minuscule manuscripts. The oldest papyrus manuscript is the Rylands Papyrus 457, dating to 125 AD. Most papyrus manuscripts are fragments, but there are also long ones, such as the Chester Beatty Papyri and the Bodoma Papyri. Capital manuscripts date from the 4th to 10th centuries, and the major ones include the Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Ephraimite, and Bezae manuscripts. The New Testament was translated into Latin from Greek manuscripts at the end of the 4th century, and together with the Old Testament, it was called the "Vulgate" (Latin vulgare means "everyday"). The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages did not allow translations into other languages, but since Luther's translation of the Old and New Testaments into German from the original languages, believers in Protestant countries have been able to read the Bible directly in their own language translations. The first Japanese translation of the Bible was the Gospel of John by Gutzlaff, written during the period when Christianity was banned. He was in Macau at the time, but with the help of three Japanese shipwrecks, he translated the Bible into Japanese and published it in Singapore in 1837. Missionaries continued to translate parts of the Bible, but in 1872 (Meiji 5), a joint missionary conference of various sects resolved to jointly translate the New Testament, which began to be published in separate volumes in 1875, with the complete work completed in 1879. The Old Testament also began to be published in separate volumes in 1882, and was completed in 1888. The Japanese translation used many Chinese expressions, as it was based on a Chinese translation that had already been published in China, and many Chinese words such as "Deuteronomy" and "burnt offering" still remain in today's colloquial translations. In 1906 (Meiji 39), the Evangelical Alliance resolved to revise the translation, and the revised translation committee completed and published the so-called "Taisho Translation of the Classical Bible" in 1917 (Taisho 6). This was widely read by churches and the general public until the colloquial translation was made, and even after the colloquial translation was published, there was no end to people who loved its beautiful writing, and it continues to be published by the Japan Bible Society today. After the Second World War, in response to demand for a modern-language Bible using new kana and focusing on current kanji, the Japan Bible Society began work on the colloquial translation in 1951. During the war, attempts had been made to revise the Old Testament in literary form, but this was switched to a colloquial translation, which was carried out by the Colloquial Translation Committee along with the New Testament, with the New Testament completed in 1954 and the Old Testament the following year in 1955. In addition to these colloquial translations jointly produced by the Protestant and Anglican Communion, the Evangelical Church published the Revised Bible in 1970. The Catholic Church completed and published a colloquial translation of the New Testament by E. Raguet in 1910, and after the war, F. Barbaro completed and published a colloquial translation of both the Old and New Testaments in 1964. During this time, many individual translations by Bible scholars have been published. The trend towards ecumenism in Christian churches encouraged Catholics and Protestants to jointly translate the Bible, and a joint translation of the New Testament was completed and published in 1979. A joint translation of the Old Testament is currently underway. [Michio Akashi] "Saito Isamu, "The Bible as Literature" (1944, Kenkyusha)" ▽ "Sekine Masao, "Old Testament" (1949, Tokyo Sogenshinsha)" ▽ "Maeda Goro, "Overview of the New Testament" (1956, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Revised Edition of the New Bible Dictionary, edited by Baba Yoshishi (1979, Christ Newspaper Co., Ltd.)" ▽ "Hamashima Toshi, "The History of Bible Translation: Focusing on the English Bible" (2003, Sogotosha)" ▽ "Tomioka Koichiro, "Open the Bible" (2004, Shobo)" ▽ "Christoph Levin, translated by Yamaga Tetsuo, "The Old Testament - History, Literature, and Religion" (2004, Kyobunkan)" ▽ "Haraguchi Naoaki, "Overview of the New Testament" (2004, Kyobunkan)" ▽になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do . [Reference] | | | | | | Scrolls | | | | | | Babylonian | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
キリスト教の正典。英語のバイブルBibleという語は、古代の紙の原料とされたパピルスの芯(しん)を意味するギリシア語のビブロスbiblosに由来する。このパピルスの巻物に文字を記したものをbiblionとよび、書物の意味となった。その複数形がラテン語化してbibliaとなり、とくに聖なる書物を表すようになったものである。 聖書には『旧約聖書』Old Testamentと『新約聖書』New Testamentがあるが、その「約」は、「契約」を意味する文字である。キリストの最後の晩餐(ばんさん)の場面には、十字架の血が、神と人間とのあいだの新しい契約となることが述べられている。 このキリストの新しい契約に関する書物を『新約聖書』とよび、ユダヤ教の経典であったものを救主(すくいぬし)キリストの準備の書として『旧約聖書』とし、あわせてキリスト教のカノン(正典)とした。 [赤司道雄] 『旧約聖書』
[赤司道雄] イスラエルの歴史『旧約聖書』各書の成立過程とその構成を知るには、歴史的背景の理解が必要である。 エジプトの奴隷であったヘブライ諸族は、紀元前13世紀、モーセに率いられてカナーンに解放の地を求め、エジプトを脱出する。この困難な事業を果たすため、モーセは、彼らの共通の祖アブラハム、イサク、ヤコブの神、ヤーウェを唯一の神として拝むこと、ヤーウェは彼らをとくに選んだ民イスラエルとして民祖への約束であるカナーンの地を与えることを説き、民族一神教と選民信仰の基礎を据えた。モーセは、ヨルダン川の対岸に南部最大のオアシスの町エリコを目前にして死ぬが、その遺志はヨシュアに受け継がれ、ヨルダン川を渡りカナーン征服に向かう。イスラエル十二支族は、それぞれの指導者である士師(しし)(裁き人)のもとに協力しながら原住民を征服し、カナーン全域を各支族に分けて定着していく。これが前12~前11世紀の士師時代である。 このころ、ペリシテが西岸から侵入し、カナーンはペリシテ人の地――パレスチナ――とよばれるようになる。これに対抗するため全支族を統率する王の出現が望まれ、十二支族の宗教連合はサウル王のもとに国家となる。 サウルは戦いに敗れ、在位11年で自決、王位はダビデに継がれる。前1000年ごろである。ダビデはペリシテ人を破り、全カナーンを征服して、ここにイスラエル統一王朝がなる。この安定したイスラエル王国を継いで内政・外交に手腕を発揮したのが、前960年ごろから40年間にわたって統治したソロモン王である。彼はエルサレムに神殿と王宮を建て、全国に堅固な要塞(ようさい)都市を建設する。 しかし、この2代のイスラエル黄金時代も、ソロモンの死後、王位継承争いにより南ユダ王国と北イスラエル王国に分裂し、国力はしだいに弱まる。前721年アッシリアは北イスラエルを占領する。このアッシリアにかわって台頭したバビロニアは、前586年南ユダを滅ぼしてしまう。エルサレムは破壊され、多くのユダの民は捕らわれの身となり、バビロニアに連行される。これを「バビロン捕囚」とよび、イスラエル宗教史は大きな転換を遂げる。 前538年、バビロニアにかわって地中海世界に領土を広げたペルシアは、捕囚のユダヤ人を解放、帰国させる。前331年のペルシアの滅亡後も、ギリシア前期エジプトのプトレマイオス王朝はユダヤ教を保護する。しかし前202年以後シリアのセレウコス王朝はユダヤ教を迫害し、前160年ごろユダヤは独立戦争によりハスモン王朝を興す。しかし前63年にはローマに占領され、イエスの時代に至る。 [赤司道雄] 『旧約聖書』の構成と各書の成立『旧約聖書』は律法、預言書、諸書よりなる。律法とは、『旧約聖書』の最初の五書「創世記」「出エジプト記」「レビ記」「民数(みんすう)記」「申命(しんめい)記」のことである。「創世記」は、天地創造譚(たん)、アダムとイブ、カインとアベル、ノア、バベルの塔の伝説が記され、イスラエル民祖、12族長の物語などで構成されている。第二の「出エジプト記」から第五の「申命記」までは、モーセの出生から死までの間に、シナイ山その他で神からモーセを通じて与えられた律法が編纂(へんさん)されている。したがってこの五書は「モーセ五書」または「モーセの律法」といわれ、前400年ごろユダヤ教最初の経典(カノン)となった。 「創世記」「出エジプト記」の伝承は、おもに神名を、「ヤーウェ」とよぶ「ヤーウィスト」Jahwist(略号J)、「エロヒム」とよぶ「エロヒスト」Elohist(略号E)と名づけられる資料からなり、前者は前10世紀なかば、後者は前8世紀なかばに成立した。Jは民族信仰に貫かれ、Eはこれに倫理的宗教観が加味されている。「出エジプト記」20~23章にある「モーセの十戒」「契約の書」はEの作者の手になる。前621年ヨシア王により「申命記(申(かさ)ねての命令)法」Deuteronomium(D)が定められ、「申命記」5~25章、28章に置かれた。「レビ記」「民数記」は、前500年ごろ祭司によりまとめられた「祭司法典」Priester Kodex(P)で、この作者が律法全体の編纂者であり、五書各所に筆を施している。このように「律法」は、J、E、D、Pの四資料より構成されている。 預言書は前300年ごろまでに編集され、ユダヤ教第二の経典となった。「イザヤ」「エレミヤ」「エゼキエル」の三大預言書、「ホセア」以下12の小預言書と、この編集のときその前に置かれた「ヨシュア記」「士師記」「サムエル記」上下、「列王紀」上下の四書を前預言書とし、あわせて預言者の名で聖典とした。 預言者とは、イスラエルでは、神のことばを預(あず)かって民に伝える指導者で、モーセもサムエルもこうよばれた。この15の預言者は、そのことばが記録され聖書に収録されたもので、「記述的預言者」Canonical Prophetsとよばれる。アモスの出現は前760年ごろで、イスラエル、ユダの社会の乱れを鋭く批判し、神の懲罰を説いた。民族信仰が単純にヤーウェは民イスラエルを助けるとしたのに対し、神は義の神であるからその民も義の民でなければならないとし、神を拝する道は儀礼ではなく公正を世に行うことであると説いた。このように宗教に明確な倫理的性格を与えたのが、アモスに始まるホセア、ミカ、イザヤ、ゼパニヤ、エレミヤらの捕囚以前の預言者で、ユダヤ教の第二の特色となる。ナホム、ハバククの2人だけは民族信仰を鼓吹し、国際的危機にヤーウェの助けを預言した。 エゼキエルは捕囚前から捕囚にかけて預言し、アモスの系列にたちながらも、捕囚中はユダヤの民を励ました。捕囚は民族信仰を動揺させ、多くのユダヤ人はヤーウェの信仰を離れた。「イザヤ書」40~55章に収められた第二イザヤの預言は、慰めと励ましの預言であり、義の生活を保つことによってヤーウェの救いが約束されると説いた。そのなかに「苦難の僕(しもべ)の歌」といわれるものがあるが、民の苦難は贖罪(しょくざい)の苦悩であるとする思想によって、キリスト教では、キリストの預言とみられている。捕囚後の預言者ハガイ、ゼカリヤ、マラキは、捕囚後の新生ユダヤのなかにある社会悪を批判しながらも、エルサレムの復興を激励している。 前預言書のうち「ヨシュア記」は、モーセの後継者ヨシュアに古代の英雄物語をあわせたもので、この士師時代の歴史は、各支族の士師を中心とした記録を編集した「士師記」によるほうが確かである。「士師記」5章の「デボラの歌」は前1150年ごろの実際の戦闘の目撃者のつくった歌で、旧約最古の資料の一つである。「サムエル記」は、12支族の精神的指導者サムエルに油注がれて王となったサウルとダビデの物語、「列王紀」はソロモン以後の列王の記録である。ソロモン時代以後は王朝に書記局が設けられ、ダビデの言い伝えとともに歴史的信憑(しんぴょう)度は高い。この四つの歴史書は、「申命記法」をつくった学派の中の歴史家、「申命記」的歴史家Deuteronomistとよばれ、預言者の倫理性を受けた歴史観にたつ。 「諸書」とよばれる残りの書は、捕囚以後に成立したもので、神殿、会堂などで用いられてはいたが、ユダヤ教の正典とされるようになったのは紀元後のことである。日本語聖書の配列はユダヤ教の「律法」「預言書」「諸書」の順序とは異なる。これは、前3世紀のヘレニズム世界で、ヘブライ語聖書がギリシア語に翻訳されたときの順序に由来する。この訳は72人の学者によって行われたと伝えられ、『セプトゥアギンタ』Septuaginta(『七十人訳聖書』)とよばれた。これには、のちに正典から外された「旧約外典」「偽典」も含まれている。キリスト教会ではこの『セプトゥアギンタ』をもとにラテン訳『ブルガータ訳聖書』をつくり、それがキリスト教会の『旧約聖書』の配列を決定したのである。 捕囚以後のユダヤは、ペルシア、ギリシア初期のユダヤ教保護の政策のもとに宗教国家となり、祭司長を首長としながら発展した。先の「律法」「預言書」の編纂による正典の決定、多種にわたる宗教文書の成立にこれをみることができる。預言書といわれるもののなかにも「ヨエル書」「オバデヤ書」「ヨナ書」「ゼカリヤ書」などは文学的性格が強い。「ルツ記」は文学的な物語である。 「歴代誌」上下、「エズラ記」、「ネヘミヤ記」は、歴代誌記者Chroniclerとよばれる前4世紀の歴史家の一連の編著である。「歴代誌」は、捕囚前の歴史を改めて新しい歴史観で編集し直し、捕囚の終わりまでをつづる。歴代の王の事績は、神に忠実であったか、これに背(そむ)いたかという観点から懺悔(ざんげ)史的に回顧、反省されている。また、捕囚以後の平和主義、反戦主義的な立場は、ダビデの取り扱いによく表れている。このイスラエルの最大の王が神殿を建てなかったのは、多くの血を流したためであり、神殿は「平安と静穏」の時代の王ソロモンによって成る、とされている(上22章6~10)。エズラ、ネヘミヤは、前5世紀なかばにペルシアから帰国した文(ふみ)の学者と総督であり、この2人の手で組織教団としてのユダヤ教が成立する(前444)。2人のそれぞれの手記が「エズラ記」「ネヘミヤ記」に資料として用いられている。「ヨブ記」「箴言(しんげん)」「伝道の書」は「知恵文学」といわれる。捕囚以後のユダヤ教の中心は祭司であった。しかし彼らは貴族階級となり、民衆から離れていった。このときに一般信徒の知識階級から「知恵の教師」とよばれる人々が出て、神殿とは別に会堂を全国に建て、ユダヤ教一般民衆の指導者となった。ユダヤ教は一面では占領者の保護政策のもとに成熟期を迎えていた。しかしこの政策は、地中海世界のつねに動揺する国際状勢のもとで、ユダヤに平穏を保たせるためのものであった。異国の占領下、しかもユダヤを挟むペルシア、エジプト、ギリシアの対立下の軍隊の往来などで民衆の生活は圧迫され、信仰を離れ世俗化した人々が栄える反面、敬虔(けいけん)なユダヤ教徒は不遇に苦しんでいた。義(ただ)しい信仰者をなぜ神は苦しめるのか、こうした疑念がユダヤ教徒の心を覆っていた。「ヨブ記」は、「完(まった)く正しい」ヨブが受ける苦悩をテーマとする対話詩劇である。このスケプティシズム(懐疑主義)は、「空(くう)の空、空の空、いっさいは空である」ということばに始まる「伝道の書」で極端に達する。ユダヤ教、キリスト教の聖書には異質とも思えるペシミズム、ニヒリズムが、民衆の心をくもうとした1人の「知恵の教師」の手でこの文書をものしたのである。 「箴言」は、正しい敬虔な者が幸せを得るには、世の知恵、処世の道を知らなければならないとして、古今東西の格言を集め、「知恵」、慎み、たしなみを教えようとしたものである。「箴言」と「伝道の書」がソロモンの名を冠するのは、ソロモンが知恵の王とされ、人の知恵は神がソロモンを通じて与えたものという信仰による。 「詩篇(しへん)」は、「雅歌(がか)」「哀歌」とともに詩文学に数えられる、捕囚以後の多様な文学形式の一つである。詩150篇は、ペルシア時代からギリシア時代にわたり、捕囚以前から伝わる詩と新作の歌とをあわせて、3次にわたり編集され、ギリシア時代後期にモーセ五書に倣って五部にまとめられた。このなかにはダビデに帰せられるものが多いが、これはダビデが歌と音楽の王とされているからである。「詩篇」は神殿で聖歌隊によって歌われる賛歌であるが、ことに初期のものは、会堂内で歌われたものが神殿礼拝用に取り入れられたものが多い。第一次編集(3~41篇)には「嘆きの歌」といわれるものが多いが、これは「ヨブ記」に集約される義しく敬虔なユダヤ教庶民の苦しみを神に訴えるものである。第二次(42~89篇)、第三次(90~150篇)と編集が加えられるにしたがって、信頼・感謝の歌、預言者的・知恵文学的な歌の数が増える。これは、信徒の信仰の動揺を教え諭(さと)し、神への信頼を固めようとするユダヤ教の精神史の流れと一致する。「知恵の教師」は律法学者のグループを生み、彼らによって律法をたたえる律法主義的な歌がつくられるようになる。最終の編纂者は冒頭に律法主義の歌を置き、最終五篇をハレルヤ(ヤーウェをほめたたえよ)の詩で結んでいる。 「ダニエル書」は典型的な黙示文学である。旧約の預言者には終末における神の審判を説く傾向はあったが、それは来世観とは結び付かない。イスラエル思想は本来的に宗教史には珍しい現世主義である。しかし、ギリシア時代後期のセレウコス王朝によるユダヤ教の迫害は、教徒に平和主義を捨てさせると同時に、宗教思想のうえでも、ペルシア的な終末観の形成を助けた。すなわち、この世を悪の支配とみて、これが終わって新しい神の支配がくるという思想である。「ダニエル書」は『旧約聖書』の最後の書物で、前165年ごろセレウコス王朝の圧迫下にユダヤの救いを、終末観にたち、黙示文学の形で著したものである。黙示とは、神のひそかな啓示の意味で、時代をバビロニアおよびペルシアの時代にとり、義人にして賢者ダニエルへの黙示のなかに、夢の解明というような形で支配者の目を逃れながら、ユダヤ教徒の期待を表現しようとしたものであり、「ダニエル書」に初めて、きたるべき国の王メシアの姿が描かれている。黙示文学的表現は、『旧約聖書』のなかでは、ほかに「ゼカリヤ書」の後半加筆の部分、「ヨエル書」の加筆部分にみられる。旧約以後新約に至るまでの「旧約外典」「偽典」には多くの黙示文学がある。 [赤司道雄] 『新約聖書』
[赤司道雄] 福音書イエスの言行を伝える書物は、『新約聖書』のなかでは、初めの四つの書物だけであるといえる。それは、救主であるイエスが人々にもたらした神の国の幸福の音信(いんしん)について記したということから「福音(ふくいん)書」とよばれる。このうち「マタイ伝福音書」「マルコ伝福音書」「ルカ伝福音書」は、「共観福音書」Synoptic Gospelsとよばれる。それは、共通の資料を用いて、ガリラヤを中心とする伝道からエルサレムでの死というイエスの生涯の流れを共通の視点から述べているからである。ただ福音書は伝記ではなく、イエスの言行をもとに、イエスがキリストであることを宣教する目的で著されたもので、それぞれ異なった立場で資料を取り扱っている。共観福音書は資料「原マルコ」Urmarkusが最古の「マルコ伝福音書」のもととなり、これがマタイにもルカにも取り入れられている。またマタイ、ルカには共通の原資料Quelle(福音書学では略称Q)と名づけられるイエスの語録があり、このほかマタイ、ルカにはそれぞれ特有のM、Lと名づけられた資料があり、4資料説といわれる。これらの資料が、マタイではユダヤ的立場から、ルカではヘレニズム的解釈によって編纂(へんさん)されている。さらに前出の四資料のもとには、イエスの直弟子から伝わった口伝資料が推定される。これをそれぞれの「生活の座」Sitz im Lebenに基づく説話の様式から史的に分析する様式史的研究Formgeschichteが、20世紀に福音書研究を一歩前進させた。 「ヨハネ伝福音書」は、共観福音書が紀元60~70年に著されたのに対して、キリスト教がヨーロッパにも根を下ろし、教会制度が整備され始めた2世紀の初めに著されたものである。初代教会の指導者長老のヨハネは、共観福音書と、師のイエスの直弟子ヨハネのことばをもとに、イエスの活動を編んだが、その基礎には神の化肉としての神の子キリストによる永遠の生命の信仰がある。いわば初代教会の神学を説いたものともいえる。 「使徒行伝」は、「ルカ伝福音書」の著者によって、イエスの使徒の伝道が記録されたものである。ルカはパウロと伝道旅行をともにした人で、この書の後半は、彼が目撃し、あるいは本人から直接に聞いたパウロの事績が生々しい筆で報告されている。前半は、ペテロ、ヨハネ、ヤコブを中心に初代パレスチナ教団の伝道が語られているが、間接の伝聞によるこの部分には、「霊の感化」というような信仰的色彩が強い。 [赤司道雄] 『新約聖書』の構成「パウロの書簡」パウロは小アジアのタルソの生まれで、ローマの市民権をもち、ヘレニズム的教養を身につけていた。しかし彼はユダヤ教徒としてパリサイ派に属し、律法を冒涜(ぼうとく)すると考えられていたキリスト教徒迫害の先鋒(せんぽう)でもあった。彼はイエスの幻に触れて回心し、その後は小アジアからヨーロッパにかけての異邦人伝道に身を捧(ささ)げ、3次にわたる迫害下の伝道によりキリスト教を地中海世界の世界宗教に発展させた。彼が伝道先のキリスト者にあてた手紙として、13の書簡が彼の名のもとに『新約聖書』に収められている。このうち、四大書簡とよばれる「ロマ書」「コリント書(第一・第二の手紙)」「ガラテヤ書」のほか「テサロニケ書(第一の手紙)」「ピリピ書」「コロサイ書」「ピレモン書」が明らかに真正のパウロの作とされている。「エペソ書」と「テサロニケ書(第二の手紙)」には疑いの余地があり、「ヘブル書」は明らかにパウロとは思想を著しく異にする人物の手になる。これらのうち、「エペソ書」「ピリピ書」「コロサイ書」「ピレモン書」は「獄中書簡」とよばれる。パウロの手紙のうち最古のものは「テサロニケ人への第一の手紙」で、福音書より古く、パウロ伝道の初期、紀元50年ごろのものである。 [赤司道雄] 「牧会書簡」「テモテへの第一・第二の手紙」「テトスへの手紙」の三つは、18世紀以来「牧会書簡」Pastoral Epistlesとよばれるようになった。集会の秩序に関する訓戒を主題にしているからである。これらはテモテ、テトスというパウロと伝道をともにした個人あてになっている。これらがパウロの真正の手紙かどうかは多くの疑点が残る。しかしいずれにもせよ、ほかのパウロの書簡より後の作であることは確かである。 [赤司道雄] 「公同書簡」「公同書簡」Catholic Epistlesと4世紀ごろからよばれ、個々の教会あてでなく、多くの教会あてになっているのは、「ヤコブの手紙」「ペテロの第一・第二の手紙」「ヨハネの第一・第二・第三の手紙」「ユダの手紙」の七つの書簡である。これらはイエスの直弟子とヤコブの兄弟ユダの名を冠しているが、その信憑(しんぴょう)性は疑わしい。しかし、これらによって、1世紀末から2世紀にかけての初代キリスト教団の展開、初期キリスト教の思想的発展が知られるため貴重な資料である。 「ヨハネの第一・第二・第三の手紙」は、「ヨハネによる福音書」の記者、長老のヨハネか、あるいは彼とともに使徒ヨハネの兄弟弟子であった者の手になるものと考えられる。ここには、キリストの贖罪(しょくざい)と、神の子キリストに表された父なる神の愛とが結び付けられ、以後のキリスト教の中心思想が、すでにこの時代にその萌芽(ほうが)を表していることをうかがわせる。 [赤司道雄] 「ヨハネ黙示録」黙示文学は、『旧約聖書』の「ダニエル書」以後、「旧約外典」「偽典」に多くみられる。異邦の圧迫下に、比喩(ひゆ)的、幻想的な表現で、ユダヤ教徒の救済の願いを込めて著されたものである。キリスト教が1世紀末からローマの迫害にあったとき、この形式を取り入れ、神よりの謎(なぞ)の啓示の形で「ヨハネ黙示録」が著された。終末の日のキリスト再臨のさまを描いたものである。後のキリスト教の再臨信仰の根拠となった。 [赤司道雄] 『新約聖書』の成立現在の形の『新約聖書』が正典として成立したのは、4世紀のアタナシウス(296ころ―373)によってである。しかし、すでに2世紀の終わりには、四つの福音書の権威が確立していたことが教父たちの著作で明らかである。また『ムラトリ断片』Muratorian Canonには、200年ごろローマ教会で用いられた聖書のリストがある。このなかには四福音書、「使徒行伝」「13のパウロの書簡」「ユダの手紙」「ヨハネの第一・第二の手紙」「ヨハネ黙示録」が収められている。 [赤司道雄] 聖書の写本、翻訳
『旧約聖書』は、ローマ教会でギリシア語訳『セプトゥアギンタ』をもとにしてラテン訳されたが、紀元405年ヘブライ語写本に基づく改訂訳が完成した。 『新約聖書』各書の原文はギリシア語であるが、原本は残っていない。伝えられた多くの写本をもとに、古代訳、教父の引用などを参照しながら、原本の復原作業が長い教会の歴史のなかで続けられ、今日に至る。現在一般に普及しているのは、ネストレ‐アーラント版(25版・1963)、タスカー版(1964)などである。 ギリシア語写本は断片を含め5000以上あるが、パピルス写本、大文字写本、小文字写本に分けられる。パピルス写本の最古のものは紀元125年の「ライランズ・パピルス457」である。パピルス写本の多くは断片であるが、「チェスター・ビーティ・パピリ」「ボードマ・パピリ」など長文のものもある。大文字写本は4世紀から10世紀にわたり、このなかに主要な「シナイ写本」「バチカン写本」「エフライム写本」「ベザ写本」などがある。 『新約聖書』は4世紀末にギリシア語写本からラテン訳され、旧約とあわせ「ブルガータ」(ラテン語ウルグスは「日常の」の意)とよばれた。中世のカトリック教会は各国語訳を許さなかったが、ルターによる旧約・新約の原語からのドイツ語訳以来、プロテスタント各国では自国語訳で信徒は直接聖書を読むことができるようになった。 最初の日本語訳聖書は、キリシタン禁制時代のギュツラフによる『約翰福音(ヨハネふくいん)之伝』である。当時彼はマカオにいたが、漂流の3人の日本人の助けで聖書を和訳し、1837年シンガポールで出版した。その後も宣教師たちによる部分訳が続いたが、1872年(明治5)各派合同の宣教師会議で『新約聖書』共同訳を決議し、75年から分冊出版を行い、79年全冊が完成した。『旧約聖書』も82年から分冊出版が始まり、88年に完成した。和訳は、すでに中国で出版されていた漢訳を参照したため漢語的表現が多く、今日の口語訳にもなお「申命(しんめい)記」「燔祭(はんさい)」など多くの漢語が残っている。 1906年(明治39)に福音同盟会は改訳を決議し、改訳委員会の手で17年(大正6)、いわゆる「大正訳文語聖書」が完成出版された。これはのちに口語訳ができるまで諸教会、一般人に広く読まれ、口語訳出版後もその名文を好む人は後を断たず、今日も日本聖書協会で出版を続けている。 口語訳は第二次世界大戦後に、新仮名づかい、当用漢字中心による現代語聖書の要請により、1951年(昭和26)から日本聖書協会によって着手された。また戦時中に文語旧約聖書改訂の試みがなされていたが、これを口語訳に切り替え、新約とともに口語訳委員会の手で進められ、54年に新約が、翌55年に旧約が完成した。これらのプロテスタント・聖公会共同の口語訳とは別に、福音派による『改訂訳聖書』が70年に出版された。 カトリック教会では、1910年ラゲE. Raguetの手で新約の口語訳が、また戦後バルバロF. Barbaroによって1964年新約・旧約の口語訳が完成、出版されている。 この間、多くの聖書学者による個人訳が出版されている。キリスト教会のエキュメニズムの風潮は、カトリック、プロテスタントの共同訳聖書の事業を促し、1979年には『新約聖書』共同訳が完成、出版された。現在『旧約聖書』の共同訳も進められている。 [赤司道雄] 『斎藤勇著『文学としての聖書』(1944・研究社)』▽『関根正雄著『旧約聖書』(1949・東京創元新社)』▽『前田護郎著『新約聖書概説』(1956・岩波書店)』▽『馬場嘉市編『新聖書大辞典』改訂版(1979・キリスト新聞社)』▽『浜島敏著『聖書翻訳の歴史 英訳聖書を中心に』(2003・創言社)』▽『富岡幸一郎著『聖書をひらく』(2004・編書房)』▽『クリストフ・レヴィン著、山我哲雄訳『旧約聖書――歴史・文学・宗教』(2004・教文館)』▽『原口尚彰著『新約聖書概説』(2004・教文館)』▽『クリストファー・ド・ハメル著、朝倉文市監訳、川野美也子・馬場幸栄・横山竹巳訳『聖書の歴史図鑑 書物としての聖書の歴史』(2004・東洋書林)』▽『『聖書』『新約聖書 共同訳』(日本聖書協会)』▽『小塩力著『聖書入門』(岩波新書)』▽『赤司道雄著『聖書』(中公新書)』▽『山我哲雄著『聖書時代史――旧約篇』(岩波現代文庫)』▽『R. PfeifferIntroduction to the Old Testament, 2nd ed.(1948, New York)』▽『A. H. McNeileAn Introduction to the Study of the New Testament, 2nd ed.(1953, Oxford University Press)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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