In a broad sense, it is used to refer to any war in which religious issues were an important factor, but in its original meaning, it refers to a series of wars between the old and new sects that arose as a result of the Protestant Reformation. Therefore, the Albigensian Crusade, which took place from the end of the 12th century to the beginning of the 13th century, and the Hussite Wars (1419-36) between the crusaders sent by the Holy Roman Emperor at the request of the Pope after the execution of Hus and the Bohemian Hussites, are also included in the religious wars in a broad sense. Even during the Protestant Reformation, the Knights' War (1522), in which German knights led by Sickingen attacked the Archbishop of Trier, and the German Peasants' War (1524-25) are also included in the religious wars in this broad sense. [Kenjiro Nakamura] Religious wars in the narrow senseIn contrast, religious wars in the original sense include the Battle of Kappel (1529.31) between the old and new cantons in Switzerland, which occurred as a result of Zwingli's Reformation movement, the Schmalkaldic War (1546-47) between the Imperialists and Protestant princes and imperial cities, the French Wars of Religion (1562-98), the Calvinist war between Geneva and the Duchy of Savoy (1589-93), the Dutch War of Independence (1572-1648), and the Thirty Years' War (1618-48). While the Battle of Kappel and the Schmalkaldic War are included in religious wars in the narrow sense, the reason why the Knights' War and the German Peasants' War, which were also from the Reformation period, are not included is not very clear. Although the latter two were triggered by the Reformation, they can also be explained as wars that arose from conflicts between social classes, and it is simply because of this perspective that the practice of excluding them from religious wars in the narrow sense has been followed. On the other hand, there are also theories that emphasize the religious factors behind these events, so they cannot be discussed in general terms. [Kenjiro Nakamura] The nature of religious warsThe wars that are considered religious wars in the narrow sense were not only caused by religious conflict. The Battle of Kappel was also a battle between Catholic cantons against Zurich's expansionist policy. The Schmalkaldic Wars were caused by Emperor Charles V's policy of suppressing Protestantism, but the Protestant princes tried to defend their Protestant position because they did not want to give up the church control system in their territories and the confiscated monastic property that had been established by the Protestant Reformation. Moreover, it should not be overlooked that the Protestant Duke Moritz of Saxony sided with the Emperor out of political ambition and led the Protestant faction to defeat, and that the Protestant Schmalkaldic League was lobbying Protestant France for help. The Religious Wars also had an aspect of a power struggle between the nobles, with the Protestant Duke of Guise and the Protestant House of Bourbon as leaders of each faction, and this was the main reason for the prolonged civil war. This civil war came to an end when Henry IV of the Bourbon family came to the throne, converted to Catholicism, and issued the Royal Decree of Nantes (1598), granting religious freedom to Protestants, but toward the end of the Wars of Religion, King Philip II of Spain sent reinforcements to the Catholics in France. Spain was not only a stronghold for the Catholics and a base for the reactionary Reformation offensive, but it also intervened in the Wars of Religion to support the Catholics, as it was fighting the Protestant Netherlands, which was trying to gain independence from Spain at the time. [Kenjiro Nakamura] Foreign interventionFrom this time on, religious conflicts were constantly intertwined with the political interests of foreign powers, and religious wars involved foreign intervention. In the war between Geneva and the Duchy of Savoy, the Protestant Swiss city of Bern assisted Geneva, while the Catholic country of France, which did not want Geneva to become part of Savoy, also assisted, while Spain sent reinforcements to Savoy. From a European perspective, the Geneva-Savoy war had a strong flavor of a proxy war, fought around the rivalry between France and Spain. The Dutch War of Independence began with the oppression of Protestants in the Netherlands, which was a Spanish territory, but the oppressive policies of Spain, the heavy taxation, and the plundering and violence of the military caused rebellions among the residents, which developed into an independence movement throughout the 17 provinces of the Netherlands. The most militant in the independence movement were Calvinists, but Protestants were a minority among the total population of the Netherlands, so this war of independence cannot be simply considered a religious war. In this war, the Protestant country of England and the Catholic country of France supported the Netherlands, but this was because England was fighting with Spain over colonial trade, and France was in conflict with the Habsburgs. In this war of independence, the 10 southern provinces, which had an overwhelming number of Catholic residents, dropped out halfway through, and only the 7 northern provinces fought to the end, and their independence was recognized in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, but in the final stages, the fighting was carried out in conjunction with the Thirty Years' War. [Kenjiro Nakamura] The last war of religionThe Thirty Years' War also started with the reactionary Reformation offensive and oppression of Protestantism in Bohemia by the Austrian Habsburgs, and spread to the whole of Germany due to the Bohemian Diet's election of the Protestant Elector of the Palatinate Frederick V as king, and the intensifying conflict between the Protestant princes and the Emperor and princes of the Old Church throughout Germany, but it was the intervention of foreign powers that prolonged the war. The Emperor had already negotiated with Spain for assistance during the Bohemian civil war, and Spain, which was continuing its war with the Netherlands, agreed, occupying the Electorate of the Palatinate on the left bank of the Rhine and securing a route for transporting troops from Italy to the Netherlands, but the full-scale intervention of foreign powers began with the entry of King Christian IV of Denmark into the war (1625). Moreover, Christian received assistance from England and the Netherlands. Christian's entry into the war was on the pretext of defending Protestant Germany, but it was actually due to territorial ambitions in northern Germany, and England and the Netherlands provided him with support in order to weaken Spain. The Danish army was defeated by the Emperor and the German Catholic princes' armies, and Christian had to abandon his ambitions, but the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus, who also had territorial ambitions in northern Germany, received support from France and entered the war in 1630 on the pretext of defending Protestantism. France, a Catholic country, supported Sweden in order to weaken the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, which were sandwiched between France. After Gustavus' death in battle (1632), when the Imperial army gained the upper hand with the support of Spain, France abandoned its role as the mastermind behind Sweden and the Catholic princes and openly entered the war. French aid to foreign Protestants, as it had been almost always since the Genevan and Savoy wars, now took the form of participation in the conflict, and its objects were fully accomplished by the acquisition of territory on the left bank of the Rhine by the Treaty of Westphalia, the recognition of Dutch independence, the decline of Spain, and the decline of the Emperor in Germany. As mentioned above, the religious wars arose from the conflict between the old and new sects, but they did not arise solely from religious issues. Especially after the Wars of Religion, international political interests centered on the conflict between France and the Habsburgs of Spain and Austria became involved, leading to foreign intervention and eventually developing into international wars. However, after the Thirty Years' War, Europe saw a halt to large-scale civil wars and disputes caused by religious conflict, and no foreign intervention in these conflicts. This is why the Thirty Years' War is said to be the last religious war. [Kenjiro Nakamura] "The Age of the Reformation" by G. R. Elton, translated by Ochi Takeomi (1973, Misuzu Shobo) " "The Wars of Religion" by G. Rive, translated by Ninomiya Hiroyuki and Sekine Motoko (Hakusuisha, Que sais-je paperback) " "The Thirty Years' War" by Nakamura Kenjiro (included in "World War History 5", 1966, Jinbutsu Oraisha)" [References] | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
広義には、宗教問題が重要な理由となって起こった戦争全般について用いられるが、本来の意味では、宗教改革を契機として起こった新旧両派間の一連の戦争をさす。したがって、12世紀末から13世紀の初めにかけて行われたアルビジョア十字軍、フスの処刑後ローマ教皇の要請によって神聖ローマ皇帝の派遣した十字軍とボヘミアのフス派との間のフス戦争(1419~36)も、広い意味では宗教戦争に含まれる。宗教改革時代でも、ジッキンゲンを指導者としてドイツの騎士たちがトリール大司教を攻撃して起こった騎士戦争(1522)、ドイツ農民戦争(1524~25)が宗教戦争に入れられるときには、この広義においてである。 [中村賢二郎] 狭義での宗教戦争それに対して、本来の意味での宗教戦争に含まれるのは、ツウィングリの宗教改革運動に伴うスイスでの新旧諸州間のカッペルの戦い(1529.31)、皇帝派と新教派諸侯・帝国都市との間のシュマルカルデン戦争(1546~47)、フランスのユグノー戦争(1562~98)、カルバン派のジュネーブとサボア公国との戦争(1589~93)、オランダ独立戦争(1572~1648)、そして三十年戦争(1618~48)である。カッペルの戦い、シュマルカルデン戦争が狭義での宗教戦争に含まれるのに対して、同じ宗教改革時代の騎士戦争、ドイツ農民戦争がそれに含まれない理由は、あまり明瞭(めいりょう)ではない。後二者は、宗教改革が契機となって起こってはいるが、本来は身分間、階級間の対立から起こった戦乱であるという説明も可能であり、そういう見方により狭義の宗教戦争から除外する慣行が踏襲されているだけのことである。他方、それらに宗教的要因のあることを重視する学説もあり、一概には論じられない。 [中村賢二郎] 宗教戦争の性格狭義での宗教戦争とされる諸戦争も、宗教的対立だけから起こったのではない。カッペルの戦いも、チューリヒの勢力拡張政策に対する旧教諸州の戦いという一面をもっていた。シュマルカルデン戦争は皇帝カール5世の新教抑圧政策から起こったが、新教派諸侯が新教の立場を守り抜こうとした理由には、宗教改革によって確立した領内の教会支配体制と没収修道院財産を手放すまいとしたことがあった。しかも、新教派のザクセン公モーリッツが政治的野心から皇帝派について新教派を敗戦に導いたこと、新教派のシュマルカルデン同盟が旧教派のフランスに援助を求めて働きかけていたことも見逃してはならない事実である。ユグノー戦争も、旧教派のギーズ公、新教派のブルボン家をそれぞれの党派の指導者とする貴族層の政権争いという一面をもち、それが内乱を長期化させた最大の理由であった。この内乱は、ブルボン家のアンリ4世が王位についたあと、自らは旧教に改宗するとともに、ナントの王令(1598)を発布して新教徒に信仰の自由を認めたことで終息したが、ユグノー戦争の末期にはスペインのフェリペ2世がフランスの旧教派に援軍を送っていた。スペインは旧教派の牙城(がじょう)をもって任じ、反動宗教改革攻勢の拠点となっていただけでなく、当時スペインから独立しようとする新教派のオランダと戦っていたところから、ユグノー戦争にも介入して旧教派を援助したのであった。 [中村賢二郎] 外国勢力の介入このころから、宗教的対立には絶えず外国勢力の政治的利害が絡み、宗教戦争は外国の介入を交えることになる。ジュネーブとサボア公国との戦争でも、新教派のスイス都市ベルンがジュネーブを援助したほか、ジュネーブがサボア領になることを好まない旧教国フランスが援助を行い、一方スペインはサボアに援軍を送った。このジュネーブとサボアとの戦争は、全ヨーロッパ的視野においてみるとフランスとスペインの対立を基軸として戦われた代理戦争的な色彩が濃厚であったといえる。 オランダ独立戦争は、スペイン領であったネーデルラントでの新教派弾圧に端を発したが、スペインの強圧政策、重税賦課、軍隊の略奪暴行が住民の反抗をよび、ネーデルラント17州全体の独立運動へと発展したものであった。その独立運動でもっとも戦闘的であったのはカルバン派の人々であったが、新教派はネーデルラント全住民のなかでは少数派であり、したがってこの独立戦争は宗教戦争という概念だけで割り切れるものではない。また、この戦争でも、新教国のイギリスと旧教国のフランスがネーデルラントを援助したが、それは、イギリスが植民地貿易でスペインと抗争し、フランスがハプスブルク家と対立関係にあったという事情によるものである。この独立戦争では、旧教派住民が圧倒的に多かった南部10州が中途で脱落し、北部7州だけが最後まで戦い抜いて、1648年のウェストファリア条約で独立を承認されるが、その最終局面では三十年戦争と連動して戦いが進められた。 [中村賢二郎] 最後の宗教戦争三十年戦争も、オーストリア・ハプスブルク家のボヘミアでの反動宗教改革攻勢、新教派弾圧が発端となり、ボヘミア議会が新教派のプファルツ選帝侯フリードリヒ5世を国王に選んだこと、ドイツ全土でも新教派諸侯と旧教派の皇帝・諸侯との対立が激化していたことのために、ドイツ全体に波及したが、その戦争を長期化させたものは外国勢力の介入である。すでにボヘミアの内乱の局面で皇帝はスペインに援助の交渉を行い、オランダとの戦争を続行していたスペインは応諾して、ライン左岸のプファルツ選帝侯領を占領し、イタリアからネーデルラントへの軍隊輸送路を確保したが、外国勢力の本格的な介入は、デンマーク王クリスティアン4世の参戦(1625)に始まる。しかもクリスティアンはイギリスとオランダから援助を受けていた。クリスティアンの参戦はドイツの新教徒擁護を名目としたが、ドイツ北部に対する領土的野心からであり、イギリス、オランダがそれに援助を与えたのは、スペインの弱体化に目的があってのことである。デンマーク軍は皇帝とドイツの旧教派諸侯軍に敗れて、クリスティアンはその野心を放棄しなければならなかったが、同じくドイツ北部に領土的野心をもつスウェーデン王グスタフ・アドルフがフランスの援助を受けて、新教徒擁護を口実に1630年から参戦した。旧教国フランスのスウェーデン援助は、フランスを間に挟むスペイン、オーストリア両ハプスブルク家の弱体化のためであり、グスタフの戦死(1632)のあと、スペインの援助を受けて皇帝軍が優勢となってからは、フランスはスウェーデン、新教派諸侯の黒幕としての立場を捨てて、公然と参戦する。外国の新教派に対するフランスの援助はジュネーブとサボアとの戦争以後ほとんどつねに行われてきたことであるが、ここにきて参戦の形をとったのであり、ウェストファリア条約でライン川左岸に領土を獲得し、オランダの独立が承認されてスペインが衰運に向かい、またドイツでは皇帝の地位が低下したことにより、その目的は十分に遂げられた。 以上のように、宗教戦争は新旧両派の対立から起こってはいるが、宗教問題だけから起こったのではなく、とくにユグノー戦争以後はフランス対スペイン・オーストリア両ハプスブルク家の対立を基軸とする国際的な政治利害が絡んで、外国の介入を招き、さらには国際戦争に発展した。しかし三十年戦争を最後に、ヨーロッパでは宗教的対立による大規模な内乱や紛争、外国勢力によるそれへの介入はなくなる。三十年戦争が最後の宗教戦争といわれる理由である。 [中村賢二郎] 『G・R・エルトン著、越智武臣訳『宗教改革の時代』(1973・みすず書房)』▽『G・リヴェ著、二宮宏之・関根素子訳『宗教戦争』(白水社・文庫クセジュ)』▽『中村賢二郎著「三十年戦争」(『世界の戦史5』所収・1966・人物往来社)』 [参照項目] | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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