International Responsibility

Responsibility of a state under international law for ex post facto relief following a violation or failure to fulfill obligations under international law (internationally illegal act). It is called state responsibility, and the conditions for its establishment are (1) the existence of an act or omission by a state that violates international law (objective cause), (2) the attribution of responsibility for the illegal act that occurred to the state (subjective cause), and (3) the occurrence of damage (including tangible damage to property and persons, as well as intangible damage such as the prestige and integrity of the state). Furthermore, there are also claims that violations of the fundamental interests of the international community, such as aggression, colonial rule by force, genocide, apartheid, and mass pollution of the atmosphere and oceans, should be considered international crimes committed by states and treated as something different from traditional state responsibility. This is because they are violations of universal obligations owed to all members of the international community (1970 Barcelona Electricity Company case, International Court of Justice judgment), as opposed to obligations owed to specific other countries. In order to pursue the responsibility of such new internationally wrongful acts, it is necessary to grant standing to third countries that have not actually suffered damage, and to recognize the system of popular litigation. In addition to the above three requirements, although there is a theoretical conflict, factors such as the intention or negligence of state agencies are not necessarily included in the objective factors of (1) (objective responsibility principle), and are important as a standard for determining the appropriateness of a state's care in preventing and eliminating infringements by private individuals. Furthermore, in recent years, with the advancement of science and technology, in the field of business activities that "incorporate high risks," there are cases in which no-fault liability is imposed by treaty on operators or shipowners (damage caused by aircraft, nuclear power, and marine pollution) as well as states (space damage) for third-party damages caused by acts that are not prohibited under international law, and the application of the risk liability principle is also seen in international law, such as the international standardization of the state's duty of care regarding environmental conservation. To release itself from international responsibility, the offending country must take ex-post remedial measures such as restoring the state to its original state, offering an apology, providing compensation, taking action against those responsible, and promising not to recur.

[Yamamoto Soji]

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

国際法上の義務の違反または不履行（国際違法行為）に伴い、その事後救済のため国家が国際法上負う責任のこと。国家責任といい、その成立要件としては、(1)国家による国際法違反の作為または不作為の存在（客観的要因）、(2)発生した違法行為の国家への責任帰属（主体的要因）、(3)損害の発生（財産・人身に関する有形損害のほか、国家の保全・威信など無形損害を含む）がある。さらに、侵略、強力による植民地支配、集団殺害、アパルトヘイト、大気・海洋の大量汚染など、国際社会の基本的利益の侵害については、国家の国際犯罪とみなし、従来の国家責任とは異なるものとして扱おうとする主張もある。これは、特定の他国に対して負う義務とは区別して、国際社会の全構成員に対して負う普遍的義務（1970年バルセロナ電力会社事件、国際司法裁判所判決）の違反を理由とするものである。このような新しい国際違法行為の責任を追及するには、国際機関だけではなく、今後、現実に損害を受けていない第三国にも当事者適格を与え、民衆的争訟の制度を認めることが必要である。また、以上の3要件のほか、学説上対立はあるものの、国家機関による故意・過失という要因も、かならずしもすべて(1)の客観的要因に包摂できる（客観責任主義）ものではなく、私人による侵害行為の防止・排除についての国家の注意の相当性を認定する基準として重要である。さらに、近年、科学技術の進歩に伴い、「高度の危険性を内蔵する」事業活動の分野では、国際法上禁止されていない行為から生じた第三者損害について、事業者または船主（航空機、原子力、海洋汚染による損害）のほか国家（宇宙損害）に対しても、条約上、無過失責任を課する例もあり、また、環境保全に関する国家の注意義務を国際基準化するなど、国際法上も危険責任主義の適用をみるようになっている。国際責任を解除するには、加害国は、原状回復、陳謝、損害賠償、責任者の処分、再発防止の確約などの事後救済措置をとる。

［山本草二］

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