Factory - Kojo (English spelling) factory English

Japanese: 工場 - こうじょう(英語表記)factory 英語
Factory - Kojo (English spelling) factory English

It is a place where a certain amount of fixed capital and circulating capital are invested, and goods are continuously produced based on the division of labor and cooperation of workers based on a mechanical system. Fixed capital refers to capital invested in factory land, production and office buildings, machinery, raw material and finished product warehouses, etc., while circulating capital refers to capital invested in securing raw materials and hiring workers.

The production of goods in factories (factory industry) is called machine-based industry because machinery is the main means of labor. In order to efficiently use and recover the large amount of fixed capital, production must be continuously expanded above a certain scale. For this reason, production planning, including new product development and marketing, materials and transportation management, quality and cost management, etc., are thoroughly implemented by the staff department. In addition, in order to maximize the use of variable capital (wages) to increase profits, the central issue of labor management is to extend work hours and intensify labor, and the supervisory and command line centered on the factory manager and foreman is strengthened while expanding and strengthening the staff department. Within the factory, maximum rationalization is attempted in both the production site (direct department) and the administrative department (indirect department), but the larger the factory scale, the more the indirect department tends to become bloated, and in large companies, the direct/indirect personnel ratio in terms of personnel is usually 1:2 or 1:3. This is due to an increase in the number of indirect department staff within the technical department, such as those creating blueprints and estimates, performing development work, providing technical services, and engineering, as well as an increase in work such as creating work slips, work procedures, and work instructions in the administrative department, and processing slips in the accounting department.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

The factory as a place for process division

Factories, large and small, belong to either the materials, parts or assembly departments depending on the nature of the products they produce. However, products that can be completed by a single machine or by a single person are the exception; the vast majority are produced through a process that spans several stages. The principle that governs factory production is collaboration based on the division of labor, which originates from manufacture, and each task follows a set process. In this case, the process is the procedure for processing the product, as well as the route for moving the product, and indicates the geographical layout of the factory, the placement of machines and the placement of personnel. "Factory production" as a whole operation is created by the simple repetitive process performed by each worker in his or her own place (therefore, the factory is the basic unit of production, and at the same time, it determines the human relationships within the workplace).

[Shinichi Tonomura]

Working machines and advanced single-purpose machines

It is generally said that the British Industrial Revolution began with the invention and spread of working machines, mainly for spinning and weaving, and the appearance of the steam engine, a prime mover and transmission mechanism, made it possible to operate many working machines simultaneously in parallel, and the cooperation and division of labor between workers in the manufacturing era was replaced by the parallel cooperation of hundreds of similar working machines and the division of labor between different types of working machines, in which human labor was transformed into mere auxiliary labor for machines. Indeed, here, a single working machine carried out almost all the processes in a manufacturing factory, and women and children moved to the forefront of production, while adult men retreated to secondary areas requiring physical strength, such as finishing workers, supervisors, or transportation, barge driving, and coal lifting.

However, these mass-production textile factories and sewing factories are not the mainstream of modern factories. In connection with the appearance of electricity, the mainstream of factory production has moved toward the isolation of specialized processes since around the beginning of the 20th century. And machines have also moved toward the systematic development of highly specialized machines with the special functions required by partial processes (large blast furnaces, chemical synthesis and polymerization towers, high-speed cutting machines equipped with carbide tools, precision grinding machines, etc.). The various processes of modern mechanized mass-production factories are composed of the work of specialized, highly efficient, and large-capacity single-purpose machines as units. Unlike working machines, single-purpose machines, such as the lathe, were born as an extension of working tools. The lathe is the "tool" of the skilled worker, who is still the master of the machine. In this sense, blast furnaces for steelmaking, electric furnaces, and forging hammer machines can only function as they should if there is a skilled worker. However, this skill is a specialized partial skill that is different from the overall skill of a craftsman. The lifelong dependency of individual skilled workers on single-purpose machines and equipment, that is, on partial processes, has been more firmly established than ever before due to the advancement of machinery. Even in the modern steel industry, led by the UK, the use of auxiliary workers under the direction of skilled workers is common in iron smelting, wrought iron, and rolling, especially in the various processing steps. Here, human skill and intuition still control machines. It is the existence of a large number of these types of proud artisan-like skilled workers that has supported the development of small factories in Japan.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

The progress of automation and its problems

Modern mass production factories are divided into two categories: (1) assembly machinery industries using conveyor systems, as typified by the automobile industry, and (2) equipment industries, as typified by the steel and chemical industries. Starting with Taylor's scientific management and the Ford system in the early 20th century, automation has spread worldwide to various assembly industries. From the mid-20th century, the development of automatic control devices was seen based on the development of science and engineering, including the electronics industry. First, the automation of machines (especially machine tools) gave birth to multi-spindle automatic lathes and multi-spindle drill presses, and then transfer machines (systems in which automatic machines arranged in the order of processing are connected by conveyors or other means, and products are automatically processed one after another) made it possible to automatically process one material into a finished product. Moreover, this trend has not been limited to the production of a single part, but has given rise to automated factories where transfer machines are installed in the entire factory and the entire factory operates automatically. Many assembly industries have increased their automation rate by introducing industrial robots. In the chemical industry, the majority of processing steps are taken up by equipment such as distillation columns and reactors, and because the raw materials are fluids, it is possible to connect the equipment with pipes to make the process continuous, making it easy to introduce automation. Also, by distributing intermediate products during processing to various factories through pipelines, a group of factories that are interconnected with each other is formed, forming a chemical complex. In the office sector as well, progress in business automation through the use of computers is remarkable.

With the advancement of automation, new types of highly skilled technicians are required, and while designers, production planners, maintenance technicians, organizers, and managers are increasingly taking control of the core of production (expansion of intellectual labor), there is an increase in manual labor accompanied by mental and physical pain, such as monitoring measuring instruments and punching cards. Rather than liberating people from repetitive mechanical labor and enabling the full development of the worker's personality, automation is increasing the possibility of the spread of social pathology caused by the direct isolation of workers from the labor process in many workplaces. The inhumanity of labor under a conveyor system is well known, but even in modern automated factories that operate 24 hours a day on a shift system (with male workers at night), there is a large recruitment of women to perform manual labor with high precision and low wages, and the intensification of labor density there is creating a modern version of the tragedies of female factory workers in ultra-modern factories. In addition, while factories are highly developed places of material production, they are also the source of a variety of social problems and have a more serious impact on society than ever before, such as air pollution at industrial complexes and water pollution in rivers and coastals due to large-scale wastewater discharge.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

"The Philosophy of Factories - Organization and Humanity" by Nakaoka Tetsuro (1971, Heibonsha)""The Future of Humanity and Labor" by Nakaoka Tetsuro (Chuko Shinsho)""Labor and Society in Industrial Complexes" by Nakaoka Tetsuro (1974, Heibonsha)""Automation and Labor" by Shiba Shoji (1961, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)""Ideas from Small Factory Areas" by Mori Kiyoshi (Kodansha Bunko)

[References] | Automation | Machine-based large-scale manufacturing | Combinat | Industrial Revolution | Manufacture

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一定の固定資本と流動資本が投入され、機械体系を基礎とする労働者の分業と協業に基づいて、商品生産が継続的に行われる場所をいう。固定資本とは、工場用地、生産・事務用建造物、機械、原料・製品倉庫等に投入された資本をいい、流動資本とは、原材料確保と労働者の雇用に投入される資本をいう。

 工場での商品生産(工場制工業)は、機械設備を主要な労働手段として組織されるため、機械制工業とよばれる。ここでは、多額の固定資本の能率的利用および回収のため、一定規模以上の生産が継続的に拡大されねばならない。そのためスタッフ部門による新製品の開発やマーケティングを含む生産計画、資材および運搬管理、品質ならびに原価管理等の徹底が図られるほか、可変資本(労賃)の最大限利用による利潤拡大のため、労働時間の延長と労働強化が労務管理の中心課題となり、工場長・職工長を中軸とする監督・命令ラインの強化が、スタッフ部門の拡充強化を伴いつつ実現されている。工場内では、生産現場(直接部門)と事務部門(間接部門)ともども最大限の合理化が図られるが、工場規模が拡大すればするほど、むしろ間接部門が肥大化する傾向があり、大企業では人員面の直・間比率が1:2あるいは1:3に達するのが普通である。図面・見積り図面の作成、開発作業、技術サービス、エンジニアリング等技術部内の間接部門担当者の増加のほか、管理部における作業伝票、作業手順書、作業指示書の作成、経理部門における伝票処理などの業務の増加などがその原因である。

[殿村晋一]

工程別分業の場としての工場

大小の工場は、その製品の性質によって、それぞれ、素材、部品、組立て部門のいずれかに属している。しかし、単一の機械あるいは1人の人間で仕上げられるような商品は例外的で、大多数のものは、数段階にわたる工程を経て製作される。工場生産を支配している原理は、マニュファクチュア(工場制手工業)を出発点とする分業に基づく協業であり、それぞれの作業は一定の工程に従う。この場合、工程は、製品加工の手順であると同時に製品移動の経路であり、工場内の地理的配置、機械の配置や人員の配置を示すものである。1人1人の労働者が持ち場で行う単純な反復工程によって、一つの全体作業としての「工場生産」が生まれる(したがって工場は、生産の基本単位であると同時に、労働のなかの人間関係をも規定するのである)。

[殿村晋一]

作業機と発達した単能機械の体系

一般に、イギリス産業革命は、紡織を中心とする作業機の発明と普及に始まり、蒸気機関という原動機と伝動機構の登場が多数の作業機の同時並列的運転を可能にし、マニュファクチュア時代の労働者の協業と分業が、同種作業機の何百台にも及ぶ並列的協業と異種作業機間の分業に置き換えられ、そこでの人間労働は機械の単なる補助労働に転化したといわれている。確かに、ここでは1台の作業機が一つのマニュファクチュア工場のほぼ全工程を遂行しており、女性や児童が生産の前面に進出し、成人男子は仕上げ工、監督工、ないしは運搬・艀(はしけ)運送・石炭荷揚げなど筋力を要する二次的領域に後退している。

 しかし、この大量生産型の紡織工場や縫製工場は現代の工場の主流ではない。工場生産の主流は、電力という新動力の登場と関連して、20世紀初頭前後から、むしろ特殊的諸工程を独立させる方向に向かった。そして機械もまた、部分工程が要求する特殊機能を有する高度な専門機械を体系的に発展させる方向(大型溶鉱炉、化学合成・重合塔、超硬工具を備えた高速切断機、精密研削盤など)に向かった。近代的な機械化量産工場の諸工程は、特殊化され、高能率化され、大能力を有する単能機械の作業を単位として構成された。作業機と違って単能機械は、たとえば旋盤に代表されるように、作業具の延長として生まれたものである。旋盤は熟練労働者の「道具」であり、彼はなお機械の主人である。この意味では、製鉄用高炉も、電気炉も、鍛造ハンマー装置も、熟練工の存在があって初めて本来の機能を発揮する。ただしその熟練とは、手工業者の全人的熟練とは別の、特殊化された部分的熟練である。個々の熟練労働者の単能機械・装置、つまり部分工程への生涯的従属は、機械の進歩によって従来よりも強固に固定化された。イギリスを先頭とする近代製鉄業においても、製鉄・錬鉄・圧延、とくにその加工諸工程において、熟練工の指揮のもと補助労働者の利用が一般的に行われている。ここでは人間の腕と勘がなお機械を駆使している。わが国の町工場の発展を支えたのも、この種の誇り高き職人的技能工の大量の存在である。

[殿村晋一]

オートメーションの進展とその問題点

現代の大量生産工場には、(1)自動車工業を典型とするコンベヤー・システムによる組立て機械工業と、(2)鉄鋼業・化学工業を典型とする装置工業の2系統が存在する。20世紀初頭のテーラーによる科学的管理法とフォード・システムが出発点となり、オートメーション化は各組立て産業において世界的に普及した。20世紀中葉からは、電子工業をはじめとする科学・工学の発展を基礎に、自動制御装置の発展がみられ、まず機械(とくに工作機械)の自動化が多軸自動盤や多軸ボール盤を生み、ついでトランスファーマシン(加工工程順に配置された自動機械をコンベヤーその他の方法でつなぎ、製品が次々と自動的に加工されるシステム)が、一つの素材から完成品までを自動的に加工することを可能にした。しかもこの動きは、一部品の生産にとどまらず、全工場にトランスファーマシンを設備し、工場全体が自動的に動く自動工場を誕生させている。組立て工業の多くでは産業用ロボットの導入によって自動化率を高めている。化学工業は、加工工程の主要部分が蒸留塔や反応缶などの装置で占められ、原材料が流体であるため、装置相互間をパイプで連絡した工程の連続化が可能で、オートメーションの導入が容易である。また、工程中の諸中間生産物をパイプラインで諸工場に分配することによって相互に関連しあう工場群が成立し、化学コンビナートが形成される。事務部門でも電算機利用によるビジネスオートメーションの進展が著しい。

 オートメーションの進展に伴い、新しい型の高度な技能を有する技術者が必要となり、設計者、生産計画者、整備の熟練工、組織者、経営者が生産の中心部分を握る過程が進行(知的労働の拡大)する一方で、計測器の監視やカードパンチングなどにみられる精神的・肉体的苦痛を伴う単純労働が増加する。オートメーション化によって人々が機械的反復労働から解放され、労働者人格の全面的な発達が可能になるというよりは、逆に、多くの現場で、労働過程からの直接労働者の遊離が引き起こす社会的病理現象の拡大の可能性が増大している。コンベヤー・システムのもとでの労働の非人間性は周知の事実であるが、近代的オートメーション工場での交替制による24時間操業(夜間は男子労働者)でも、単純労働における精度と低賃金の対象として女子労働の大量採用がみられ、そこでの労働密度の強化は超近代工場における現代版女工哀史を生み出している。このほか、コンビナートにおける大気汚染、大量排水による河川・沿岸の水質汚濁など、工場は高度に発展した物的生産の場でありながら、同時にまた、多様な社会問題の原点として、従来にもまして深刻な影響を社会に与える存在となっている。

[殿村晋一]

『中岡哲郎著『工場の哲学――組織と人間』(1971・平凡社)』『中岡哲郎著『人間と労働の未来』(中公新書)』『中岡哲郎著『コンビナートの労働と社会』(1974・平凡社)』『司馬正次著『オートメーションと労働』(1961・東洋経済新報社)』『森清著『町工場からの発想』(講談社文庫)』

[参照項目] | オートメーション | 機械制大工業 | コンビナート | 産業革命 | マニュファクチュア

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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