Kendo - Kendou

Japanese: 剣道 - けんどう

Today's kendo is based on swordsmanship, which developed as one of the ancient Japanese martial arts, centering on the sword technique known as tachiuchi.

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

history

Before the School of Swordsmanship

Swordsmanship was already mentioned in the Nihon Shoki as "tachikaki" (attacking sword), but in the Nara period it came to be written as "tachi-uchi" and pronounced "tachi-uchi," and in the Heian period the character "tachiuchi" came into general use. Eventually, with the rise of the samurai, sword-making techniques in the Kamakura and Nanboku-cho periods also saw a remarkable development, and Japan's unique swordsmanship finally developed. Furthermore, from the mid-Muromachi period onwards, successive internal conflicts and the introduction of firearms led to a major shift in tactics, with hand-to-hand combat becoming crucial, rather than the traditional horse-based combat, and techniques became more sophisticated to meet the demands of the times.

Thus, slightly later than bows, horses, and cannons, schools of swordsmanship that established a system of transmission from master to disciple were established from the end of the 16th century to the 17th century by swordsmen who had mastered the secret techniques of the sword. The pioneers of this system were the Tenshinshoden Shinto-ryu of Iizasa Choisai, who appeared in Katori, Shimousa Province in the second half of the 15th century, the Kage-ryu (Aisu Kage-ryu) of Aisu Iko, who was from Isawa, Iinan County, Ise Province, and the Nakajo-ryu of Nakajo Hyogonosuke, who is said to have received the teachings of the monk Jion (Nen-ryu) of Kamakura-ji Temple.

Then, towards the end of the Sengoku period, the Iizasa lineage produced Tsukahara Bokuden (Shintouryu), Arima Yamatonokami Mikinobu (Arima-ryu), Matsuoka Hyogosuke Norikata, Matsumoto Bizennokami Masanobu, and Morooka Ippa (Ippa-ryu), while the Aisu lineage produced Kamiizumi Ise-no-kami Hidetsuna (also known as Nobutsuna, Shinkage-ryu), Yagyu Tajima-no-kami Muneyoshi (Shinkage Yagyu-ryu), Marume Kurandosuke (Taishure-ryu), and Hikita Toyogoro (Hikida Shinkage-ryu). In the Nakajo branch, Toda Itpō (Itpō-ryū), Hasegawa Muneyoshi (Hasegawa-ryū), Tomita Seigen (Tomita-ryū), Kanemaki Jisai (Kanemaki-ryū), and Ito Ittōsai Kagehisa (Ittō-ryū) emerged. In addition, Saito Denkifusa (Tendo-ryū) and Yoshioka Kenpō (Kyo-ryū) created their own styles, and many other founders of schools whose names will be remembered in later generations emerged. Kenpō at this stage was a practical martial art generally known as hyōho, which included not only the sword but also the arts of the long sword, spear, stick, rope, and soft weaponry, and was commonly studied simultaneously as a form of external art.

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

The Establishment of Early Modern Swordsmanship

Eventually, in the early modern period, ideas such as Zen were introduced and efforts were made to deepen technique (skill) and theory (mental methods). At the same time, a system of transmission was established and sword-fighting evolved into early modern swordsmanship, which focused solely on the sword. Representative texts from this period include Yagyu Munenori's Heihokadensho and Miyamoto Musashi's Gorin no Sho. Meanwhile, with the advent of times of peace, the brutal, practical swordsmanship of the Sengoku period faded into obscurity, becoming more formal, extravagant, and more like recreational art. Also, just as the shogunate appointed the Shinkage Yagyu-ryu and Ono-ha Itto-ryu as their official styles, and the Satsuma domain adopted Togo Juui's Jigen-ryu, each domain appointed its own masters using their own style, but these styles made no attempt to interact with each other; rather, they were closed off and exclusive, strictly forbidding matches with other styles.

This impasse was broken by the rise of schools such as Jikishinkage-ryu, Shinto Munen-ryu, Shinkage-ryu, and Kyoshinmei-ryu during the Horeki to Kansei period (1751-1801). All of these schools adopted the shinae-kote style, which was perfected by Naganuma Shirōzaemon Kunisato of Jikishinkage-ryu and Nakanishi Tadazo Tanetake of Nakanishi-ha Itto-ryu, and focused on bamboo sword striking practice. All of them developed into influential schools in the world of swordsmanship at the end of the Edo period. The Tanuma period is said to have been the height of decadence of the samurai spirit, but it was during this time that the traditional swordsmanship had tended to lean too much towards formalism, and the foundations were laid for the rise of new styles of swordsmanship.

It was Matsudaira Sadanobu's Kansei Reforms that greatly expanded and developed the new style that had begun to sprout during the Tanuma era. Sadanobu ordered literary and martial arts masters in Edo to write up their teachings, and banned those with dubious content or immature techniques from teaching. He also revived martial arts exhibitions for the samurai and held the Shogun's Shikagari deer hunt in Koganehara, Shimousa. Sadanobu's austerity policies were somewhat successful, despite the public opinion that he was "kept up in both literary and martial arts" and was unable to sleep at night. However, trainees began to compete for licenses that had a direct practical benefit to them, and in 1802 (Kyowa 2) the shogunate issued a warning calling for discipline in martial arts training halls. It was also around this time that martial arts training by peasants in the Kanto countryside began to become more apparent. In response to this, the shogunate established the Kanto Torishishuyaku (Kanto Control Agency) and issued an edict in 1805 (Bunka 2) banning martial arts training among peasants.

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

Various schools in the late Edo period

Then, during the Kasei and Tenpo eras (1804-1844), new and emerging schools such as Ryugoryu, Maniwa Nenryu, Kogen Itto-ryu, Tennenrishin-ryu, and Hokushin Itto-ryu gave a strong stimulus to the established foundations of the older schools, and they also actively participated in competitions with other schools in an attempt to expand their reach. Chiba Shusaku's Hokushin Itto-ryu in particular showed remarkable development, attracting talented students from within his family and among his disciples. Meanwhile, after the Kansei Reforms, an increasing number of feudal domains established martial arts training and demonstration halls. This was at a time when a succession of foreign ships were approaching Japan, and interest in martial arts education was on the rise. Then, the scattered and isolated master dojos were abolished and the martial arts training centers of the domain schools were consolidated, and the households within a domain were ordered to study other styles concurrently, and swordsmen from city dojos were appointed as instructors. The householders working in Edo also began to spread the new style to the provinces, and from the end of the Tenpo period to the Kaei period (1848-1854), the ban on inter-style matches was finally lifted even in large domains.

Around this time, swordsmen who came east from Kyushu and made a name for themselves in Edo included Oishi Susumu, a samurai of the Yanagawa Domain, and Kato Heihachiro, a samurai of the Kurume Domain, who used the Nagabashinai Kenpo style of swordsmanship. Mizuno Tadakuni, a key figure in the Tenpo Reforms, invited Oishi Susumu to a day to observe his swordsmanship, and the Edo swordsmen invited by Tadakuni included shogunate officials such as Odani Seiichiro of the Jikishinkage-ryu, Iba Gunbei of the Shinkage-ryu, and Ichichu dojo masters such as Chiba Shusaku of the Hokushin Itto-ryu, Saito Yakuro of the Shinto Munen-ryu, and Momoi Shunzo of the Kagami Shin Akechi-ryu. It was around this time that Chiba's Genbukan at Kanda Otamaike, Saito's Renbukan at Kudanzakakami, and Momoi's Shigakukan at Tsukiji Asarigashi were known as the three greatest dojos in Edo.

The arrival of a modernly equipped American ship in 1853 (Kaei 6) was a major shock to the shogunate, but the senior councilor Abe Masahiro, keenly aware of the need to strengthen national defense, opened the Kobusho in 1855 (Ansei 2) following a suggestion from Otokotani and others. The ultimate goal was to train in Western-style gunnery, but swords and spears were also given importance from the standpoint of practical use on the battlefield. The role of swordsmanship instructor at this time was played by Otokotani Seiichiro, and the instructors included Toda Hachirōzaemon (Tamiya-ryū), Honme Yarijirō (Jikishinkage-ryū), Imahori Sengozo (same), Matsushita Seiichiro (Shinkage-ryū), Mitsuhashi Torazo (same), Iba Sōtarō (same), Kondō Yanosuke (Chuyaha Itto-ryū), Sakakibara Kenkichi (Jikishinkage-ryū), Inoue Hachirō (Hokushin Itto-ryū), Fujita Taiichiro (Shinto Munen-ryū), and Matsudaira Kazurasuke (Yanagi Gō-ryū).

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

Meiji and Taisho era

After the Meiji Restoration, with the collapse of the samurai class, various martial arts schools lost their foundations and went into a temporary decline, and when the sword abolition edict (ban on carrying swords) was issued in March 1876 (Meiji 9), swordsmanship was on the verge of extinction. What kept swordsmanship alive during this time was the sword-fighting shows held by Sakakibara Kenkichi and others, the efforts of volunteers from private dojos, and the movement to revive swordsmanship within the Metropolitan Police Department.

The exploits of the Metropolitan Police Department's Sword Unit during the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877 led to a reevaluation of swordsmanship, and the Chief Superintendent Kawaji Toshiyoshi advocated for the revival of swordsmanship. In 1879, the second Chief Superintendent Oyama Iwao appointed famous swordsmen from around the country as swordsmanship advisors and assigned them to each police station in the city, and required police officers under his jurisdiction to practice swordsmanship. Each prefecture then followed suit, encouraging police officers and prison guards to practice swordsmanship, and the sword-fighting tournament held at Mukogaoka Yayoi-sha Shrine in 1882 attracted nationwide attention and marked an era in swordsmanship at the Metropolitan Police Department. Then, when the Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1894, the martial spirit suddenly rose among the people, and in April of the following year, the Dai-Nippon Butoku-Kai was established in Kyoto, with the aim of reviving and popularizing martial arts. In October of the same year, the first Butoku Festival Demonstration Tournament was held, and certificates of refinement were awarded to those who demonstrated particularly refined technique. In 1899, the Butokuden Dojo was built next to Heian Shrine as the central dojo, and thereafter the Butoku Festival was held every year on May 4th, followed by a Grand Demonstration, and in August, a Youth Demonstration Tournament was held, gathering young people from all over the country.

On the other hand, a petition to include martial arts (swordsmanship) in the school curriculum began in the 1870s, but the government and the Ministry of Education were strongly opposed to the use of fencing or judo as teaching materials. The government and the Ministry of Education took a passive approach, stating that since they were too strenuous and could pose physical danger to growing children and students, and therefore inappropriate to be used as regular teaching materials, they did have the advantage of being easy to carry out as traditional exercises, and therefore tacitly permitted some of them to be practiced as extracurricular activities.

However, after the Russo-Japanese War, the voices calling for the inclusion of swordsmanship and judo in the regular curriculum grew stronger, and finally, at the 24th Imperial Diet, the House of Representatives in March 1908, a proposal to include martial arts in the regular curriculum was passed unanimously. Then, at the National Conference of Normal School Principals in May 1910, a report was submitted stating that "It would be acceptable to make one or two of kendo and judo compulsory for male students as part of the gymnastics curriculum." At this point, the Ministry of Education finally took the plunge, and in July of the following year, 1911, they partially revised the "Regulations for the Enforcement of the Middle School Ordinance" to state that "gymnastics should include training and gymnastics, and may also include swordsmanship and judo." This was an insufficient regular curriculum, and was essentially the same as an optional curriculum. This was because there were a number of urgent issues, including insufficient facilities and equipment such as dojos and martial arts equipment, as well as insufficient preparations for teaching methods and research into teaching materials, and a shortage of specialized teachers and the need to improve their qualifications. At the 50th Imperial Diet session in March 1925 (Taisho 14), a motion was quickly passed recommending that gekken be "promoted as a compulsory subject" in secondary schools, but the Ministry of Education authorities continued to maintain that it was an optional subject, and even in the revision of the teaching guidelines for gymnastics the following year in 1926, the name of gekken was merely changed to "kendo."

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

From the early Showa period to the end of World War II

From the end of the Taisho period to the beginning of the Showa period, kendo at universities and technical colleges developed into a variety of activities, and in November 1928 (Showa 3), at the Meiji Jingu Athletic Meet, the All Japan Student Kendo Federation was formed and held the All Japan University and Technical College Kendo Championship. The number of member schools increased from 31 at the time of the organization's formation to 127 by 1940, ushering in an era in which student kendo was at the center.

As time passed, the Manchurian Incident, the Second Sino-Japanese War, and the country was gradually moving towards a wartime regime, but the number of kendo practitioners increased dramatically after three spectacular imperial matches: the Imperial Ceremony Commemorative Martial Arts Tournament in 1929, the Crown Prince's Birth Celebration Martial Arts Tournament in 1934, and the Showa Imperial Tournament to celebrate the 2,600th anniversary of the Imperial Era in 1940. During this time, in terms of school administration, the Enforcement Regulations of the Middle School Act were revised in 1931, and kendo and judo were made compulsory subjects and taught as "shukuheshi."

Then, in June 1936, the second revision of the gymnastics teaching guidelines included the establishment of the "Kendo teaching guidelines" for secondary schools for the first time, clearly indicating teaching guidelines for each grade. It also became a regular curriculum at Youth Schools, and in 1939 it was approved as a semi-regular curriculum for boys in the fifth grade and above of ordinary elementary schools and for boys in higher elementary schools. Furthermore, with the promulgation of the National School Act in 1941, gymnastics was renamed to physical training, and kendo and judo were made compulsory teaching materials for boys in the fifth grade and above.

As Japan entered the Pacific War in December 1941, all domestic systems were reformed to conform to the purpose of waging war. Based on the Outline of the Comprehensive Martial Arts Organizations, the Dai Nippon Butokukai was also placed under the jurisdiction of five Ministries: Health and Welfare, Education, Army, Navy, and Home Affairs on March 21, 1942, and all member organizations were expected to play an important role in the national defense capabilities.

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

Modern Kendo

In November 1945, immediately after the end of the war, the Ministry of Education (now the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology) completely banned tairenka budō and completely banned the use of kendo as school physical education, on the grounds that kendo had been used to promote ultranationalism and militarism and was valued as part of military training. In August of the following year, 1946, the use of the term 'budō' (martial arts) was also banned in the area of general social physical education, and public and private organizations were prohibited from teaching and encouraging traditional kendo. Meanwhile, in July of the same year, the Allied forces began their own investigation into the Dai Nippon Butokukai, which had previously been re-established as a private organization, as they suspected it of violating the prohibitions of the occupation policy. As a result, the Butokukai voluntarily dissolved on October 31 of the same year, but on November 8 of the same year, the Ministry of the Interior ordered it to disband and confiscated all of its assets.

Under these extremely difficult circumstances, private kendo enthusiasts continued practicing while searching for a form of kendo that would suit the new era, devising a "shinai competition" that had the characteristics of a sport, and in February 1950, they formed the All Japan Shinai Competition Federation in Tokyo, and in October of the same year, held the first All Japan Shinai Competition Tournament in Nagoya, and requested the Ministry of Education to adopt it as a teaching material in school physical education. After examining the teaching content and competition methods of this shinai competition, the Ministry of Education recognized its physical education value, and implemented it from April 1952 onwards at junior high schools and above.

Meanwhile, with the coming into force of the Peace Treaty, the movement to revive kendo suddenly became active, and in October 1952 the All Japan Kendo Federation was organized, which eliminated the negative effects of kendo in the past, established competition rules and refereeing regulations as a full-fledged sport, and aimed for democratic management. After examining this new kendo, the Ministry of Education, following a report from the Health and Physical Education Council in May 1953, first approved the implementation of kendo as a social physical education activity, and then in July of the same year, approved its adoption as a new martial arts sport in physical education teaching materials at high schools, universities, and above. This was three years after judo, and the first time the ban had been lifted in eight years.

Furthermore, in March 1954, the All Japan Kendo Federation and the All Japan Kendo Federation merged to form the All Japan Kendo Federation, which joined the Japan Amateur Athletic Association (now the Japan Sports Association) in March of the following year, 1955, and kendo was added as an official event at the 10th National Athletic Meet in the fall of the same year. Then, in May 1957, the Ministry of Education issued a notice on "Implementation of School Kendo," which consolidated the content of kendo and non-kendo sports implemented in junior and senior high schools, renamed it "School Kendo," and decided to implement it as a physical education material from junior high school and above. In addition, the "Junior High School Curriculum Guidelines" announced on October 1, 1958 included kendo in martial arts (one of the six athletic fields) and decided to implement it as a choice between judo, kendo, and sumo, and it was implemented as a compulsory physical education material in junior high schools from the 1962 academic year and in high schools from the 1963 academic year.

Subsequently, the name "martial arts" was changed to "budo" in the revised junior and senior high school curriculum guidelines (March 1989) based on a report from the Curriculum Council in December 1987, and it was positioned as teaching material that "emphasizes the development of an attitude of respect for our country's culture and traditions."

In this way, kendo quickly spread as a form of physical education and sport, and the number of kendo practitioners increased significantly, but since the late 1980s, it has been on a downward trend. According to a survey by the Kendo Club of the High School Athletic Federation, the number of high school students practicing kendo has been declining year by year since peaking in 1984, and has not shown any signs of stopping since. In addition, the number of young children practicing kendo, which has supported the kendo population along with women, has also been declining with the declining birthrate, and this is also not showing any signs of stopping.

Meanwhile, the spread of kendo overseas has been gaining momentum since the 1950s, and has been steadily achieving results. In 1965, the first International Social Kendo Tournament was held in Taipei, followed by an International Goodwill Kendo Tournament at the Nippon Budokan in 1967, and in April 1970, the International Kendo Federation (IKF) was formed with 17 member organizations, and the first World Kendo Championships were held in Tokyo. Since then, tournaments have been held every three years, and the number of member organizations has increased, with 37 countries and regions participating in the 11th Santa Clara Tournament in March 2000 (Heisei 12). 44 countries and regions participated in the 13th Taiwan Tournament in 2006. In addition, from the 9th Kyoto Tournament (1997), women's individual and team matches were added as international selection matches.

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

Match and Referee Rules

The current rules for refereeing kendo matches were published on April 1, 1995, and came into effect on July 1. The rules are based on the "Philosophy of Kendo" and "Attitude for Kendo Training" published in May 1975, and Article 1 states that "The purpose of the rules is to adhere to the principles of the sword, to conduct matches fairly and with fair judging."

To summarize the rules, the tournament takes place in a square or rectangular tournament area measuring 9 to 11 meters on each side, and competitors wear kendo equipment (men, kote, do, tare) and strike each other with bamboo swords. Participants also wear kendo uniforms and hakama (Japanese traditional formal trousers). The tournament is basically a 5-minute, 3-point match, and the winner is the one who wins two points within the time limit. However, if one side wins an ippon and the time runs out, that person is declared the winner, and if the winner is still not decided within the time limit, an overtime period will be played, and the winner will be the one who wins an ippon first. If the winner is still not decided within the time limit, an overtime period will be played, and the winner will be decided by judgment or lottery, or the tournament can be called a draw. Team matches are decided by winner count or knockout method, and the winner is decided according to the method established for the tournament. In the former case, if there are a tie in the number of winners, the winner is the one with the most total points, and if the total points are the same, the winner is decided by a representative match.

The areas for a strike are (1) the men (front and both sides), (2) the kote (right and left kote), (3) the torso (right and left torso), and (4) the tsubu (tsukidare). The striking part of the shinai is defined as the blade part (opposite the string) with the monodachi at the center. A valid strike is made with the striking part of the shinai with good spirit, proper posture, and with a correct blade line, and with zanshin (remaining alert even after the strike and thinking about the opponent's counterattack). However, a valid strike is not made when both parties make a simultaneous strike (mutual strike), or when the tip of the sword of the person being struck is in contact with the front of the opponent's upper body and the spirit and posture are judged to be good.

The refereeing committee consists of the chief referee, the head referee (if there are two or more match areas), and the referees. In principle, there will be one chief referee and two assistant referees at the match area, and they have equal authority in determining valid strikes and other decisions.

A valid strike is determined when two or more judges indicate a valid strike, or when one judge indicates a valid strike and the other judges indicate a withdrawal.

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

Rank and title system

When the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF) was founded in 1953, the system of awarding ranks and titles was a single system, with ranks limited to 5th dan, with the titles of Renshi, Kyoshi, and Hanshi above that. However, it was strongly influenced by Judo, which was one of the first to adopt the 10th dan system, and in 1957 the system was revised to a two-tier system with 10th dan ranks, but with the titles remaining the same. The current rules, which came into effect on April 1, 2000, still follow this two-tier system. Ranks are awarded after an examination to indicate "technical ability in kendo (including mental elements)," while titles indicate "the degree of completion as a kendo practitioner, which also includes leadership ability and insight."

Ranks range from 1st to 8th dan, and candidates must be registered members of an AJKF affiliated organization, have completed the required number of years of training, and meet the age and school year requirements. Examinations for 1st to 5th dan are delegated to affiliated organizations and are based on practical, kata, and academic skills, while examinations for 6th and 7th dan are based on practical, kata, and academic skills, and a candidate is deemed to have passed with the consent of at least 5 out of 7 judges, as specified separately. Examinations for 8th dan are based on practical, kata, and academic skills, and a candidate is deemed to have passed with the consent of first and second practical examinations. A candidate is deemed to have passed with the consent of at least 5 out of 7 judges for the first practical examination, at least 7 out of 10 judges for the second practical examination, and at least 2 out of 3 judges for the kata and academic examinations.

There are three titles: Renshi, Kyoshi, and Hanshi, with Hanshi being the highest rank in terms of title and rank. To be eligible to take the exam, one must be a registered member of an All Japan Kendo Federation affiliated organization, hold the required rank and title, and be recommended by the affiliated organization's president, and for Hanshi, must be approved by the All Japan Kendo Federation president. After attending a course held by the affiliated organization, the Renshi and Kyoshi examinations are conducted by a short essay for Renshi and a written test for Kyoshi, with the candidate passing if five or more out of seven judges agree. The Hanshi examinations are conducted by a document review, with the candidate passing if eight or more out of ten judges agree.

[Ichiro Watanabe and Tamio Nakamura]

Subsequent developments

Under the "Kendo Title and Rank Examination Rules" that have been in effect since April 2009, the examination for titles and ranks is as follows: For 6th and 7th dan, a candidate must pass the practical examination with the unanimity of at least 4 out of 6 judges, and for the kata examination with the unanimity of at least 2 out of 3 judges. For 8th dan, a candidate must pass the first practical examination with the unanimity of at least 4 out of 6 judges, the second practical examination with the unanimity of at least 6 out of 9 judges, and the kata examination with the unanimity of at least 2 out of 3 judges. For renshi and kyoshi, a candidate must pass with the unanimity of at least 4 out of 6 judges.

[Editorial Department]

"The History of Great Japanese Kendo" by Hori Shohei (1934, Kendo Book Publishing Association)" ▽ "Revised New Edition: One Hundred Years of Kendo" by Shoji Munemitsu (1976, Jiji Press)" ▽ "The Thirty-Year History of the All-Japan Kendo Federation" (1982, same federation) ▽ "The Kendo Encyclopedia - A History of Technique and Culture" by Nakamura Tamio (1994, Shimazu Shobo) ▽ "The Five Hundred Years of Kendo" by Tominaga Kengo (1996, Shimazu Shobo)

Kendo competition venue
©Shogakukan ">

Kendo competition venue

Kendo Armor
©Katsuya Nishikawa ">

Kendo Armor

Kendo bamboo sword
©Katsuya Nishikawa ©Shogakukan ">

Kendo bamboo sword

Kendo stance
©Shogakukan ">

Kendo stance

Kendo striking parts
©Shogakukan ">

Kendo striking points

Kendo Techniques
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Kendo Techniques

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

今日の剣道は、日本古来の武術の一つとして操刀の技法「太刀打ち(たちうち)」を中心に発展してきた剣術に基づいている。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

歴史

流派剣術以前

剣術は、すでに『日本書紀』に「撃刀」（たちかき）として表れるが、奈良時代には撃剣、撃刀と書いて「たちうち」と読ませるようになり、平安時代「太刀打ち」の文字が一般に使われた。やがて武士の興起とともに、鎌倉・南北朝時代には、刀剣製作技術の目覚ましい発達と相まって、いよいよ日本独自の剣術が展開する。さらに室町中期以降、相次ぐ国内の争乱と、これに加えて鉄砲の伝来による戦術の一大転換により、従来の騎馬中心の戦闘から、白兵歩戦が決定的な意味をもつようになると、時代の要求に応じて技法のくふうも一段と精妙を加えることとなった。

　こうして、弓、馬、砲よりやや遅れて、16世紀末から17世紀にかけて、秘剣の妙法を自得した剣術者たちによって、師資相伝の方式を打ち立てた流派が成立してくる。その先駆となったのは、15世紀後半に、下総(しもうさ)国香取(かとり)に出た飯篠長威斎(いいざさちょういさい)の天真正伝神道流(てんしんしょうでんしんとうりゅう)、伊勢(いせ)国飯南郡射和(いさわ)出身の愛洲移香(あいすいこう)の陰流(かげりゅう)（愛洲陰流）、鎌倉地（寿）福寺の僧慈音の教え＝念流を受けたといわれる中条兵庫助(ちゅうじょうひょうごのすけ)の中条流の三者である。

　ついで戦国末期にかけて、飯篠の系統には塚原卜伝(ぼくでん)（新当流(しんとうりゅう)）、有馬大和守(ありまやまとのかみ)幹信（有馬流）、松岡兵庫助則方(のりかた)、松本備前守政信、諸岡一羽(もろおかいっぱ)（一羽流）らが、愛洲の流れには上泉(かみいずみ)伊勢守秀綱（信綱ともいう、新陰流）、柳生但馬守宗厳(やぎゅうたじまのかみむねよし)（新陰柳生流）、丸目蔵人佐(くらんどのすけ)（タイ捨流）、疋田豊五郎(ひきたぶんごろう)（疋田新陰流）らが出た。また中条の分かれには、富田(とだ)一放（一放流）、長谷川宗喜（長谷川流）、富田勢源（富田流）、鐘捲(かねまき)自斎（鐘捲流）、伊藤一刀斎景久（一刀流）などが現れた。このほか斎藤伝鬼房（天道流）、吉岡拳法(けんぽう)（京流）らが自流を編み出すなど、後世に名をうたわれる流祖たちが出現した。この段階における剣法は、一般に兵法とよばれる実戦的な武技で、剣のほか長刀、槍(やり)、棒、捕縄、柔などの諸芸を包含するもので、これを外物(とのもの)といって兼修するのが常であった。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

近世剣術の成立

やがて近世初期に至り、禅思想などを導入して、業（技倆(ぎりょう)）、理（理論・心法）の深化が図られ、これとともに相伝体系を整備して、剣一本の近世剣術へと発展する。柳生宗矩(むねのり)の『兵法家伝書』、宮本武蔵(むさし)の『五輪書(ごりんのしょ)』などは、この時期の代表的伝書である。一方、平和時代の到来とともに、実戦的で殺伐な戦国剣法は影を潜め、形式に流れて華美となり、遊芸化の傾向をみることとなる。また、幕府が新陰柳生流と小野派一刀流を御流儀とし、薩摩(さつま)藩が東郷重位(じゅうい)の示現流(じげんりゅう)を採用したように、各藩各様の流儀を用いて師家を取り立てたが、各流とも相互の交流を試みることなく、むしろ他流試合を厳禁して封鎖的、排他的であった。

　こうした行き詰まりを打開したのが宝暦(ほうれき)～寛政(かんせい)期（1751～1801）に台頭してくる直心影流(じきしんかげりゅう)、神道無念流、心形刀流(しんぎょうとうりゅう)、鏡新明智流(きょうしんめいちりゅう)などである。これら諸流はいずれも、直心影流の長沼四郎左衛門国郷(くにさと)や中西派一刀流の中西忠蔵子武(たねたけ)によって完成されたという鞱袍(しなえこて)を自流に採用し、竹刀(しない)打込み稽古(けいこ)を主体とし、いずれも幕末剣術界の有力流派に発展したのである。士風退廃の極にあったといわれる田沼時代は、ややもすると形式主義に流れた従来の型剣法の弊を脱却し、新流勃興(ぼっこう)の素地を醸成していったのである。

　田沼時代に芽を出した新流を大きく伸長発展させたのは、松平定信(さだのぶ)の寛政の改革である。定信は、江戸市中の文武師家に書上(かきあげ)を命じ、内容のいかがわしいもの、技術の未熟なものに指南の禁止を命じたり、諸士の武芸上覧を復活し、下総小金原で将軍御鹿狩(しかがり)を催したりした。こうした定信の緊縮政策は、「文武文武で夜も寝られず」という世評にもかかわらず、いちおうの成果をあげた。しかし、修業者が現実的な利害に直結する免許を競望するに至り、幕府は1802年（享和2）武術稽古場の風紀粛正を求める戒告を発している。また、このころから関東農村内における農民の武芸稽古も顕在化してくる。これに対し幕府は、関東取締出役(とりしまりしゅつやく)を設置した1805年（文化2）農民間の武芸稽古を禁圧する令を出している。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

幕末の諸流派

ついで、化政(かせい)・天保(てんぽう)期（1804～1844）には、柳剛流(りゅうごうりゅう)、馬庭念流(まにわねんりゅう)、甲源一刀流、天然理心流、北辰(ほくしん)一刀流などの在野的新興流派が、古流の既成地盤に強力な刺激を与えるとともに、積極的に他流試合に出かけて、教線の拡大を試みるようになった。なかでも千葉周作の北辰一刀流は一族子弟・門下に俊秀を得て、目覚ましい発展を示した。一方、寛政の改革以降、藩営の武芸稽古場・演武場を設置するところが増加する。時あたかも外国船の接近が相次ぎ、武芸教育への関心が高まったからである。そして分散孤立的な師家道場を廃止して、藩校の武教場を一本化し、一藩内の家中に他流兼修を命じたり、市中道場の剣士を師範に登用するようになる。江戸在勤中の家士も地方に新流を普及するようになり、天保末年から嘉永(かえい)（1848～1854）にかけて、大藩においてもようやく他流試合が解禁となった。

　このころ、九州から東下して江戸に剣名をはせた者に、長竹刀剣法の柳川(やながわ)藩士大石進や、久留米(くるめ)藩士加藤田平八郎がある。天保の改革の立役者水野忠邦(ただくに)は一日大石進をよんでその剣法を観賞したが、そのとき忠邦に招かれた江戸の剣客は、幕臣では直心影流男谷精一郎(おだにせいいちろう)、心形刀流伊庭軍兵衛(いばぐんべえ)、市中道場主では北辰一刀流千葉周作、神道無念流斎藤弥九郎(やくろう)、鏡新明智流桃井春蔵(もものいしゅんぞう)らであった。千葉の神田お玉が池「玄武館」、斎藤の九段坂上「練兵館」、桃井の築地浅蜊河岸(つきじあさりがし)「士学館」が、江戸の三大道場といわれたのも、このころである。

　1853年（嘉永6）近代的装備をもつ米艦の来航は幕府に一大衝撃を与えたが、国防強化の必要性を痛感した老中阿部正弘(まさひろ)は、男谷らの建議を受けて1855年（安政2）講武所を開設した。その究極の目標は洋式砲術調練にあったが、戦場実用の立場から、剣槍も砲術とともに重視された。このとき剣術師範役には男谷精一郎、教授方に戸田八郎左衛門（田宮流）、本目鑓次郎（直心影流）、今堀千五百蔵（同）、松下誠一郎（心形刀流）、三橋虎蔵（同）、伊庭惣太郎（同）、近藤弥之助（忠也派(ちゅうやは)一刀流）、榊原鍵吉(さかきばらけんきち)（直心影流）、井上八郎（北辰一刀流）、藤田泰一郎（神道無念流）、松平主税助（柳剛流）らが選ばれた。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

明治・大正時代

明治維新後、武士階級の崩壊により、武術諸流派はその存在基盤を失って一時に衰退し、1876年（明治9）3月、廃刀令（帯刀禁止令）が公布されると、剣術はまさに廃絶の危機に追い込まれた。この時期に、よく剣術の命脈をつなぎとめたのは、一つは榊原鍵吉らの撃剣興行、一つは民間道場有志らの奮闘、ついで警視庁における剣術再興の動きであった。

　1877年の西南戦争における警視局抜刀隊の活躍によって、剣術が見直され、大警視川路利良(としよし)が剣術再興論を唱えたのをはじめとして、79年第2代大警視大山巌(いわお)は、全国の有名剣士を剣術世話係に任用して、市内各署に配属し、管下の巡査に剣術を課した。ついで各府県もこれに倣って巡査・看守らに剣術を奨励したため、1882年に始まった向ヶ丘弥生社(むこうがおかやよいしゃ)の撃剣大会は全国の関心を集め、警視庁剣術の一時代を画した。ついで、1894年日清(にっしん)戦争が起こると、国民の間に尚武の気風がにわかに高まり、翌95年4月、京都に大日本武徳会が設立され、武術の復興と普及が図られた。同年10月、第1回武徳祭演武大会を開催し、とくに技術精錬なる者に精錬証を授与した。さらに1899年、平安神宮に隣接して中心道場としての武徳殿を建立し、以後毎年5月4日に武徳祭を挙行し、引き続き大演武会を催し、8月には全国の青年を集めて青年演武大会を行うのを恒例とした。

　一方、学校教育に武（剣）術を加えることの請願運動は、明治10年代から始められたが、政府・文部省は撃剣や柔術を教材とすることに強い難色を示し、成長期の児童・生徒の体育運動として強度にすぎ、身体の危険が伴いやすいので、正科教材として採用するのは適当でないが、伝統的な運動として行いやすい利点もあるので、一部課外として実施することは黙認するという、消極的な方針が受け継がれてきた。

　しかし、日露戦争後、剣柔を正科教材に採用せよという声が一段と強まり、1908年3月の第24回帝国議会衆議院において、ついに武術の正科採用建議案が全員一致をもって可決された。ついで1910年5月の全国師範学校長会議において、「体操科の一部として、男生徒に剣道柔道の一または二を必修せしむるを可とす」という答申が提出された。ここで文部省もようやく重い腰をあげ、翌1911年7月「中学校令施行規則」を一部改正し、「体操ハ教練及体操ヲ授クヘシ又撃剣及柔術ヲ加フルコトヲ得」とした。これは不十分な正科で、実質的には随意科と同じであった。道場・武道具などの施設・用具をはじめ、指導法や教材研究の準備も不十分であり、また専門教員の不足やその資質の向上など、緊急な問題が山積していたためである。1925年（大正14）3月の第50回帝国議会において、中等学校においては、速やかに「必須科トシテ普及セシムルコト」という建議案が可決されたが、文部省当局は依然として随意科の姿勢を崩さず、翌1926年の体操教授要目の改正にも、撃剣の名称を「剣道」に改めるにとどまった。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

昭和初期から第二次世界大戦終了まで

大正末期から昭和初頭にかけて、大学・高専における剣道が多彩な活動を展開し、1928年（昭和3）11月、明治神宮体育大会を機に、全日本学生剣道連盟が結成され、全日本大学高専剣道優勝大会を開催した。加盟校も、1940年には結成当初の31校から127校に増え、学生剣道中心の時代を現出した。

　やがて時代は満州事変、日中戦争と、しだいに強まっていく戦時体制への移行を背景としながらも、1929年御大礼記念武道大会、1934年皇太子殿下御誕生奉祝武道大会、1940年皇紀二六〇〇年奉祝昭和天覧試合と、三度に及ぶ華やかな天覧試合を経て、剣道人口は飛躍的に増加した。この間、学校行政の面では、1931年に中学校令施行規則等が改正され、剣道および柔道は「授クヘシ」と必須(ひっす)科目として実施されることになった。

　ついで1936年6月、第二次改正の体操教授要目で、初めて中等学校の「剣道教授要目」が制定され、各学年ごとの教授指針が明確に示された。青年学校においても正課となり、1939年には尋常小学校5年以上および高等小学校の男子に準正課として課すことが認められ、さらに1941年国民学校令の公布とともに、体操科は体錬科と改められ、5年以上の高学年男子に剣道・柔道が必修教材として課せられることになった。

　1941年12月、太平洋戦争に突入して、国内体制はすべて戦争遂行目的に合致するよう改正され、大日本武徳会も、武道綜合(そうごう)団体組織要綱に基づき、1942年3月21日、厚生・文部・陸軍・海軍・内務5省の管下に置かれ、加盟団体はあげて国防能力の一翼を担うものとされた。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

現代の剣道

終戦直後の1945年（昭和20）11月、文部省（現、文部科学省）は体錬科武道を全面的に禁止し、剣道が超国家主義および軍国主義の鼓吹に利用され、軍事訓練の一部として重んぜられたとの理由から、剣道を学校体育として実施することをいっさい禁止した。翌1946年8月、一般社会体育の面においても、武道という名称の使用を禁止し、公私の組織する団体で従来の剣道を指導督励することを禁止した。一方、同年7月、連合軍当局は、先に民間団体として再発足をした大日本武徳会に対し、占領方針中の禁止事項に抵触する疑いありとして、独自の調査を開始した。このため武徳会側は、同年10月31日自主的に解散したが、同11月8日内務省は解散を命令し、いっさいの財産を没収した。

　こうしたきわめて困難な状況下にあって、民間の剣道愛好者は、新しい時代に即した剣道のあり方を模索しつつ練習を続け、スポーツとしての性格を備えた「しない競技」を考案し、1950年2月、東京に全日本撓(しない)競技連盟を結成し、同年10月第1回全日本撓競技大会を名古屋で開催、文部省に学校体育の教材として採用するよう要望した。文部省は、このしない競技の指導内容や、競技方法を検討した結果、その体育的価値を認めて、1952年4月から中学校以上に実施するに至った。

　一方、平和条約の発効を機に、剣道の復活の動きがにわかに活発となり、1952年10月全日本剣道連盟が組織され、過去の剣道の弊害を除去し、本格的なスポーツとして、競技規則、審判規程をつくり、民主的な運営を図った。文部省はその新しい剣道について検討した結果、1953年5月、保健体育審議会の答申を得て、まず社会体育としての剣道の実施を認め、ついで同年7月には、高校・大学以上の学校で、新しい格技スポーツとして体育教材に採用することを認めた。柔道に遅れること3年、実に8年ぶりの禁止解除であった。

　さらに1954年3月、全日本撓競技連盟と全日本剣道連盟は合同して、新しく全日本剣道連盟として出発することとなり、翌1955年3月日本体育協会（現、日本スポーツ協会）へ加盟し、同年秋の第10回国民体育大会から剣道が正式種目に加えられた。ついで1957年5月、文部省は「学校剣道の実施について」を通牒(つうちょう)し、中学・高校で実施しているしない競技と剣道の内容を整理統合して名称も「学校剣道」とし、体育教材として中学校以上に実施することになった。また、1958年10月1日告示の「中学校学習指導要領」によって、剣道は格技（運動領域6部門の一つ）のなかに含まれ、柔道、剣道、すもうの三者択一のもとに実施することが決まり、中学校では1962年度、高校では1963年度から、体育の必修教材として実施されることとなった。

　その後、格技という名称は、1987年12月の教育課程審議会の答申に基づいて改訂された中学・高校の学習指導要領（1989年3月）において、武道という名称に改称され、「わが国の文化と伝統を尊重する態度の育成を重視する」教材として位置づけられている。

　こうして体育・スポーツとしての剣道は急速に普及し、剣道人口も著しく増加したが、1980年代後半以降は減少傾向にある。高体連剣道部の調査によれば、高校生の剣道人口は1984年をピークに年々減少しており、以後も歯止めがかからない状態にある。また、女子とともに剣道人口を支えてきた幼少年剣道人口も少子化とともに減少しており、こちらも歯止めがかからない状態である。

　一方、剣道の海外普及は昭和30年代からしだいに活発となり、着実にその成果をあげている。1965年、台北で第1回国際社会人剣道大会を開催したのをはじめ、1967年には日本武道館で国際親善剣道大会を開催し、1970年4月には加盟17団体による国際剣道連盟（IKF）が結成され、第1回世界剣道選手権大会が東京で開催された。以来3年ごとに大会を開催し、その後加盟団体も増え、2000年（平成12）3月の第11回サンタクララ大会には、37か国・地域が参加。2006年の第13回台湾大会には44か国・地域が参加した。また、第9回京都大会（1997）からは女子の個人・団体戦が国際選抜試合として加わった。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

試合・審判規則

現行の剣道試合審判規則は、1995年4月1日に公布され、7月1日から施行されたもので、1975年5月に公表された「剣道の理念」「剣道修錬の心構え」の趣旨を、規則として第1条に「剣の理法を全うしつつ、公明正大に試合をし、適正公平に審判することを目的とする」と、位置づけたものである。

　規則の概要を示せば、1辺9メートルないし11メートルの正方形または長方形の試合場で、剣道具（面、小手、胴、垂れ）を着用して竹刀で打突(だとつ)しあうものである。また、服装は剣道着、袴(はかま)を着用する。試合は5分三本勝負を原則とし、試合時間内に二本先取した者を勝ちとする。ただし、一方が一本取り、そのままで試合時間が終了したときは、この者を勝ちとし、試合時間内に勝敗が決しない場合は延長戦を行い、先に一本取った者を勝ちとする。それでも決まらない場合は、判定または抽選により勝敗を決め、あるいは引き分けとすることもできる。団体試合は勝者数法または勝抜き法とし、その大会で定められた方法により行い勝敗を決する。前者の場合、勝者が同数の場合は、総本数の多い方を勝ちとし、総本数が同数の場合は、代表者戦によって勝敗を決する。

　打突部位は、(1)面部（正面および左右面）、(2)小手部（右小手および左小手）、(3)胴部（右胴および左胴）、(4)突部（突き垂れ）。竹刀の打突部は、物打を中心とした刃部（弦の反対側）と定められた。有効打突は、充実した気勢、適正な姿勢をもって、竹刀の打突部で打突部位を刃筋正しく打突し、残心（打突した後も油断なく、相手の反撃に心を配ること）あるものとされた。ただし、有効打突が両者同時にあった場合（相打ち）、もしくは被打突者の剣先が相手の上体前面に付いていて、その気勢、姿勢が充実していると判断された場合は有効打突としない。

　審判員の構成は、審判長、審判主任（2試合場以上の場合）、審判員からなる。試合場における審判員は、主審1名、副審2名を原則とし、有効打突およびその他の判定については同等の権限を有する。

　有効打突の決定は、2名以上の審判員が有効打突の表示をしたとき、もしくは1名が有効打突の表示をし、他の審判員が棄権の表示をしたときに決定される。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

段位・称号制度

段位・称号の授与は、全日本剣道連盟（全剣連）が発足した1953年当初は、段位は五段までで、その上に錬士、教士、範士の称号を置くという一本建ての制度であった。ところが、十段制をいち早く採用した柔道に強く影響され、1957年には称号はそのままとし、段位を十段制とする二本建ての制度に改正された。2000年4月1日施行の現行規則においても、二本建ては踏襲されている。段位は「剣道の技術的力量（精神的要素を含む）」、称号は「これに加える指導力や、識見などを備えた剣道人としての完成度」を示すものとして、審査を経て与えられる。

　段位は、初段から八段までとし、受審の資格は、全剣連加盟団体の登録会員で、所定の修業年限を経過し、かつ年齢、学年の条件にかなっていることが必要である。初段より五段までの審査は、実技、形および学科により加盟団体に委任して行い、六、七段の審査は実技、形、学科とし、別に定める審査員7名中5名以上の合意により合格とする。八段の審査は実技、形および学科とし、実技については第一次、第二次審査を行う。第一次実技審査は審査員7名中5名以上、第二次実技審査は審査員10名中7名以上、形および学科審査は審査員3名中2名以上の合意により合格とする。

　称号は、錬士、教士、範士の三階制で、範士は称号、段位を通じた最高位である。受審の資格は、全剣連加盟団体の登録会員で、所定の段位、称号を受有していることが条件で、かつ加盟団体会長の推薦、さらに範士は全剣連会長の認可が必要である。錬士、教士の審査は加盟団体が行う講習を受けた後、錬士は小論文、教士は筆記試験を行い、審査員7名中5名以上の合意により合格とする。範士の審査は書類審査を行い、審査員10名中8名以上の合意で合格とする。

［渡邉一郎・中村民雄］

その後の動き

2009年4月より施行されている「剣道称号・段位審査規則」では、称号及び段位の審査は以下のとおりである。六段、七段の実技審査は審査員6名中4名以上の合意、型審査3名中2名以上の合意により合格とする。八段の第一次実技審査は6名中4名以上の合意、第二次実技審査は9名中6名以上の合意、型審査は3名中2名以上の合意により合格とする。錬士、教士の審査は6名中4名以上の合意で合格とする。

［編集部］

『堀正平著『大日本剣道史』（1934・剣道書刊行会）』▽『庄子宗光著『改定新版・剣道百年』（1976・時事通信社）』▽『『全日本剣道連盟三十年史』（1982・同連盟）』▽『中村民雄著『剣道事典―技術と文化の歴史―』（1994・島津書房）』▽『富永堅吾著『剣道五百年史』（1996・島津書房）』