Abstinence - Kinyoku

Japanese: 禁欲 - きんよく
Abstinence - Kinyoku

Broadly speaking, it is a term that means the control and discipline of the mind and body in order to achieve a certain goal or ideal. Therefore, academic study, spiritual training, and physical training can all be considered asceticism, and it is preached by philosophical schools such as the Cynics, the Stoics, and the Neoplatonic schools, but the term is particularly problematic in the field of religion.

Asceticism for religious purposes includes the following reasons: (1) to purify oneself from impurity and evil spirits, (2) to strengthen one's own strength and acquire supernatural powers, (3) as a sacrificial act to welcome the sacred, and (4) as a path to atone for sin and reach a state of holiness and bliss. In any case, asceticism is based on the idea that religious ideals can only be realized by denying instinctual desires and worldly desires. For this reason, asceticism tends to appear in dualistic religions that emphasize the distinction between spirit and flesh or between the sacred and the secular, but ascetic elements can be found in all religions to a greater or lesser extent.

Specific examples of asceticism include spiritual acts such as silence, meditation, reciting scriptures, submission, and patience, as well as physical acts such as celibacy, fasting, bathing, wearing simple clothing and eating simple food, pilgrimages, shortening sleep, whipping, and handcuffing and leg ironing. These acts are also called training or penance, and various methods have been devised by each religion. Various methods of asceticism were established in relation to divine concepts and cultural conditions, such as the austerity practices of Shinto and Confucianism, the forest life of Brahmin ascetics, the mysteries and begging lifestyles found in ancient Greek religions, and the physical abuse of Islamic mystics.

The basic idea of ​​asceticism, which seeks to cut off various desires and limit human activities to those necessary for religious purposes as much as possible, is the driving force behind the rationalization and systematization of religious life toward the achievement of those goals, and ultimately acts as a shaping force in history. Max Weber saw a typical example in Christianity. The impact of "extra-worldly asceticism" in medieval monastic life on church organizations and manorial economies, and the role of "inter-worldly asceticism" as represented by modern Calvinism in the formation of professional ethics and the spirit of capitalism are notable examples of the role asceticism played in relation to the social and cultural aspects of the era. On the other hand, in Eastern religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism, asceticism is positioned solely as a stepping stone to mystical experiences and is used as a means of concentrating the mind to achieve liberation. Examples include the first five stages of the "eight limbs" of yoga practice, the "outer limbs," and the Zen meditation that follows on from that.

[Noriaki Akaike]

[References] | Cynic school | Neoplatonic school | Stoic school

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

広くは一定の目的や理想を達成するための心身の統御・鍛練を意味する用語である。したがって、学業の研鑽(けんさん)や精神的修養あるいは身体上の訓練などいずれも禁欲とみなすことができ、キニコス学派、ストア学派、新プラトン学派などの哲学諸派はいずれもこれを説くが、この語がとくに問題となるのは宗教の分野においてである。

 宗教上の目的のために行われる禁欲には、(1)不浄な状態や悪霊の力を払い清めるため、(2)自力を補強し超能力を獲得するため、(3)聖なるものを歓待する犠牲的行為として、(4)罪を贖(あがな)い聖性と至福の境地に至る道程として、などの理由が数えられる。いずれにしても禁欲は、本能的欲求や世俗的欲望の否定によって初めて、宗教上の理想が実現されるという発想に基づいている。そのため、霊と肉ないし聖と俗の区別を強調する二元論的宗教に現れやすいが、いずれの宗教にも多かれ少なかれ禁欲的要素は認められる。

 具体的な禁欲行為としては、たとえば沈黙、黙想、経典読誦(どくじゅ)、服従、忍辱(にんにく)などの精神的行為、独身生活、断食(だんじき)、沐浴(もくよく)、粗衣粗食、巡礼行脚(あんぎゃ)、睡眠短縮、鞭打(むちうち)、手枷足枷(てかせあしかせ)などの肉体的行為がある。これらの行為は修行、苦行などともよばれ、各宗教によってさまざまの方法がくふうされている。神道(しんとう)や儒教の精進潔斎(しょうじんけっさい)、バラモン苦行者の森林生活、古代ギリシア宗教にみられる密儀、乞食(こじき)生活、イスラム教神秘主義者の肉体虐使など、神観念や風土的条件と関連しながら各種の禁欲方式が成立した。

 もろもろの欲望を切り捨て、人間の営みを可能な限り宗教的目的に必要な行為に限定しようとする禁欲の基本理念は、宗教生活を目的達成に向けて合理化し体系化する動力となり、ひいては歴史形成力として作用する。マックス・ウェーバーはその典型をキリスト教にみた。中世の修道院生活における「世俗外禁欲」が教会組織や荘園(しょうえん)経済に及ぼした影響、近代カルビニズムに代表される「世俗内禁欲」が職業倫理、資本主義精神の形成に与えた役割、これらは禁欲がその時代の社会的、文化的側面とのかかわりで果たした顕著な事例であった。一方、ヒンドゥー教、仏教など東洋の宗教では、禁欲はもっぱら神秘体験に至る階梯(かいてい)として位置づけられ、解脱(げだつ)のための意識集中の手段に用いられる。ヨーガ行法の「八支」のうち前半5段階の「外支」、その流れをくむ禅宗の「坐禅(ざぜん)」などがその例である。

[赤池憲昭]

[参照項目] | キニコス学派 | 新プラトン学派 | ストア学派

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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