Fundamental human rights

Japanese: 基本的人権 - きほんてきじんけん(英語表記)fundamental human rights
Fundamental human rights

These are rights that every human being has. They are also simply called human rights or fundamental rights. Every individual is born with inherent rights that cannot be transferred to others. These are called human rights or natural rights. In modern times, with the independence of the United States and the French Revolution, the idea that it is the duty of the state to protect individual freedom (liberalism) became stronger, and since the state was established to protect such human rights, it could not infringe on them, and therefore human rights were thought to exist prior to the state. Both the American and French Declarations of the Rights of Man and Citizens proclaimed and guaranteed such human rights.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

The Significance of Fundamental Human Rights

Initially, human rights meant exclusively freedom rights. Freedom rights are rights that secure individual freedom without the intervention or interference of state power, and are also called fundamental freedom rights. The desire for freedom is inherent in human nature from birth, and these freedom rights were the first rights that humans acquired in order to establish their own individual worth. Freedom of thought, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and association, freedom of residence and movement, secrecy of correspondence, inviolability of the home, and inviolability of property rights were thought to fall into this category. In contrast, the right to vote was initially distinguished from human rights, as it was not a right held by humans, but a right held by citizens (or nationals) of a state.

In the 20th century, after the First and Second World Wars, popular sovereignty was established and the idea that the state's duty is to guarantee the lives of all its citizens (the idea of ​​a social state) became widespread, and as a result, the right of citizens to participate in politics, i.e., the right to vote, and the right of citizens to have their lives guaranteed (social rights or fundamental rights like the right to life) all came to be included in the category of human rights. Social rights and the right to vote were established on the premise of freedom rights, and in that sense freedom rights are the most fundamental of all human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, includes suffrage and social rights in addition to freedom rights in the category of human rights.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Declaration of Human Rights

When the states of the United States of America created the world's first written constitutions at the end of the 18th century, they also enacted the Declaration of Human Rights, declaring and guaranteeing various human rights. This set an example, and thereafter, the written constitutions of each country always contained a set of provisions equivalent to the Declaration of Human Rights. In this way, countries around the world tried to protect human rights by creating Declarations of Human Rights, but as transportation developed and negotiations between countries increased, the idea spread that it was not enough to protect human rights in each country's constitution, and that they needed to be protected by international law in order to be effective. As a result, the United Nations, which was established at the end of World War II, placed great importance on the protection of human rights, and its charter contains many provisions to that effect. Furthermore, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights mentioned above is considered to be a summary of the human rights declarations that had been established by each country up to that point, and states that all nations are "common standards to be achieved." However, this is merely a declaration and does not have legal effect. To resolve this issue, the so-called International Covenants on Human Rights (which came into force in 1976) were created, namely the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Covenant A), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Covenant B), and the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Japan ratified Covenant A and Covenant B in 1979, but has reservations about some of the Optional Protocols and other provisions.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Human Rights in the Meiji Constitution

The declarations of human rights in Western countries had a great influence on the Meiji Constitution, and Hirobumi Ito, the drafter of the constitution, even said that there would be no point in establishing a constitution if it did not guarantee rights. However, the Meiji Constitution was based on the principle of imperial sovereignty and took the stance that the emperor would rule Japan based on divine authority, so the people were considered "subjects" subject to the rule of the emperor and did not recognize human rights in the inherent sense. Also, influenced by foreign declarations of human rights, the Meiji Constitution contained provisions guaranteeing freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and association, freedom of residence and movement, personal freedom, inviolability of the home, and inviolability of property rights, but these were permitted to be restricted by law, and were actually restricted by law. For example, in the case of personal freedom, although the law was created in accordance with the spirit of the constitution, in reality human rights were violated in a way that ignored that spirit.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Fundamental Human Rights and the Constitution of Japan

The above-mentioned situation changed completely with the establishment of the Constitution of Japan after the Second World War. In other words, the sovereignty of the Emperor was replaced by the sovereignty of the people as the fundamental principle, and fundamental human rights in their inherent meaning were recognized for the first time.

The Constitution of Japan has respect for fundamental human rights as its fundamental principle, and in Chapter 3, "Rights and Duties of the People," it guarantees fundamental human rights as "permanent and inviolate rights" (Articles 11 and 97 of the Constitution). The fundamental human rights stipulated there include the following:

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Freedom

Depending on what is guaranteed, these can be divided into the right to spiritual freedom, personal freedom, and economic freedom. The right to spiritual freedom is the right that guarantees the freedom of the individual's mind from state power, and specifically, it stipulates freedom of thought and conscience (Article 19 of the Constitution), freedom of religion (Article 20 of the Constitution), freedom of assembly, association, and expression (Article 21, paragraph 1), academic freedom (Article 23 of the Constitution), prohibition of censorship, and secrecy of correspondence (Article 21, paragraph 2 of the Constitution), and people are no longer punished for their thoughts as they were under the Meiji Constitution.

Furthermore, freedom of the individual's body from everything, especially from state power, is a minimum human need, and the Constitution provides many guarantees to guarantee this personal freedom. These include freedom from slavery and forced labor (Article 18), the guarantee of due process (Article 31), and the rights of suspects and criminal defendants (Article 37), and strict conditions are set to limit the abuse of state power (Articles 32-39). Furthermore, economic freedom must be established in order to establish a modern civil society. The Constitution of Japan also guarantees economic freedom, but at the same time, since unlimited freedom of a liberal economy leads to social corruption, restrictions based on the public welfare are also recognized from this perspective. In addition to the freedom to choose one's occupation (Article 22, paragraph 1 of the Constitution) and the inviolability of property rights (private property system) (Article 29 of the Constitution), freedom of residence and movement, freedom to emigrate to a foreign country, and freedom to renounce nationality (both Article 22 of the Constitution) are historically considered to belong to the right to economic freedom.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Right to vote

It refers to the right of citizens to participate in politics, specifically including the right to vote and be elected as parliamentary members, as well as various direct democratic rights and the right to petition. The Japanese Constitution is based on the principle of popular sovereignty, and states that the people ultimately decide the nature of politics. It stipulates that "the selection and dismissal of public officials is an inherent right of the people" (Article 15, paragraph 1 of the Constitution), but since it is practically impossible to select and dismiss all public officials, the Constitution allows the selection of Diet members and heads and assembly members of local governments, popular review of Supreme Court judges, and requests for dismissal of heads and assembly members of local governments, while other public officials are selected by the Diet or the executive branch. This is justified on the basis of representative democracy, but representative democracy can easily become sluggish and have the disadvantage of making it difficult to convey the demands and wishes of various segments of the public, so the right to petition (Article 16 of the Constitution) is stipulated in order to open the way. With regard to the election of public officials, universal suffrage by adults is guaranteed, and the secrecy of voting is also guaranteed (Article 15, Paragraphs 3 and 4 of the Constitution).

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Social Rights

The Constitution of Japan provides new social rights. These include the right to life, the right to education, and the right to work. First, to guarantee the right to life, the right to live a healthy and cultured minimum standard of living is provided for (Article 25, paragraph 1 of the Constitution), and as a concrete example, various social legislation, including the Public Assistance Act and the National Health Insurance Act, are aimed at promoting the welfare of people's lives. Next, the right to equal opportunities for education and the guarantee of compulsory education are provided for, with nine years of compulsory education in elementary and junior high schools being free of charge (Article 26 of the Constitution). In addition, to effectively guarantee the right to life, it is necessary to ensure the right to work, and this is provided for in the Constitution (Article 27 of the Constitution). In addition, the state has enacted the Employment Security Act, the Employment Insurance Act, etc. to provide employment opportunities, and has established the Labor Standards Act to set standards for working conditions and prohibit the overwork of children. In addition, the Constitution also provides for the assumption of obligations in addition to rights. Furthermore, in order to counter the economic advantages of employers and ensure substantive equality in contracts, the Constitution guarantees "the right of workers to organize and to bargain collectively and to take other collective action" (Article 28 of the Constitution). The right of workers to organize, the right to bargain collectively, and the right to take collective action (including the right to strike) are known as the three labor rights.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

Fundamental human rights and the right to review laws

Under the Meiji Constitution, the courts did not have the power to review legislation (the power to review unconstitutional legislation), so even if a law was made that violated the freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, the courts had no choice but to apply it as is. In contrast, the Constitution of Japan clearly recognizes the courts' power to review legislation (Article 81 of the Constitution), so even if a law that violates fundamental human rights is made by a majority in the Diet, the court can find it unconstitutional in a related trial and refuse to apply it. However, the standards for constitutional review differ depending on the type of human right, with spiritual freedom being reviewed more strictly than economic freedom (theory of double standards), and the will of the Diet often being respected when reviewing social rights (legislative discretion). Nevertheless, it is said that this has ensured the guarantee of fundamental human rights. The Supreme Court is said to be the "guardian of the Constitution" because the courts have the role of using this power of review to prevent the provisions of the Constitution from being violated by the Diet.

[Masaaki Ikeda]

"Fundamental Human Rights," 5 volumes, edited by the Institute of Social Science, University of Tokyo (1968-69, University of Tokyo Press)""Modern Aspects of Human Rights," edited by Sato Koji and Hatsujiku Masanori (1990, Yuhikaku)""Constitution II: Human Rights," by Tonami Eji, Yasunen Junji, Matsui Shigeki, and Hasebe Yasuo (1992, Yuhikaku)""Constitution I," 4th edition, by Nonaka Toshihiko, Nakamura Mutsuo, Takahashi Kazuyuki, and Takami Katsutoshi (2006, Yuhikaku)""Iwanami Lectures: Constitution II: New Developments in Human Rights Theory," edited by Hasebe Yasuo et al. (2007, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Collection of Human Rights Declarations," edited by Takagi Yasaku, Suenobu Sanji, and Miyazawa Toshiyoshi (Iwanami Bunko)""The History of Fundamental Human Rights" by Teruya Abe, Haruhiro Taneya, Koji Sato, Mutsuo Nakamura, and others (Yuhikaku Shinsho)

[References] | Constitution | International Covenant on Human Rights | Suffrage | Social rights | Freedom rights | Declaration of Human Rights | Personal freedom | Universal Declaration of Human Rights | Constitution of Japan

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

人間である以上、かならずもっている権利をいう。単に人権あるいは基本権ともよばれる。個人はすべて生まれながらにして固有の、他人に譲り渡すことのできない権利をもっている。これが人権または自然権とよばれるものである。近代に入ってアメリカ合衆国の独立やフランス革命によって、個人の自由を守ることが国家の任務であるという思想(自由主義)が強まり、国家はそういう人権を守るために設けられるものであるから、国家はそれらの人権を侵すことはできない、だから人権は国家以前のものであると考えられた。アメリカやフランスの人権宣言はいずれもこのような人権を宣言し、保障した。

[池田政章]

基本的人権の意義

人権は初めもっぱら自由権を意味していた。自由権は、国家権力の介入や干渉を排除して個人の自由を確保する権利で、自由権的基本権ともよばれる。人間の自由に対する欲求は生まれながらの人間性に内在するものであって、人間が個人の価値を確立するため獲得した最初の権利がこの自由権であった。思想の自由、宗教の自由、言論の自由、集会・結社の自由、居住・移転の自由、信書の秘密、住居の不可侵、財産権の不可侵などがこれに属すると考えられた。これに反して参政権は、人間として有する権利ではなくて、国家の市民(または国民)として有する権利として、初めは人権からは区別された。

 20世紀になり、第一次、第二次世界大戦を経て、国民主権が確立され、国家の任務はすべての国民の生活を保障するにあるという思想(社会国家思想)が一般に浸透するにつれて、国民が政治に参加する権利、すなわち参政権や、国民がその生活を保障される権利(社会権もしくは生存権的基本権)もすべて人権のうちに含まれることになった。社会権や参政権は、自由権を前提にして確立されたものであり、その意味では自由権は人権のなかでも、もっとも基本的なものである。1948年12月10日国際連合総会で議決された世界人権宣言は、自由権のほかに参政権や社会権を人権のうちに含ませている。

[池田政章]

人権宣言

18世紀の終わりにアメリカ合衆国の諸州が世界で初めて成文憲法をつくったとき、同時に人権宣言を制定し、各種の人権を宣言し、保障した。これが例となって、その後各国の成文憲法には、つねに人権宣言に相当する規定の一群が置かれるようになった。このようにして世界各国は人権宣言をつくって人権を守ろうとしたが、交通が発達し、各国間の交渉が多くなるにつれ、人権を各国の憲法で守るだけでは不十分であり、国際法的にこれを守らなくては十分な効果が期待できないという考えが広まった。その結果、第二次世界大戦終結とともにできた国際連合は、人権の保障を非常に重くみて、その憲章にもその趣旨の規定が多い。さらに、先にあげた世界人権宣言は、それまで各国で定められた人権宣言の総まとめとも考えられて、全国家が「達成すべき共通の基準」であると述べている。ただ、これは単なる宣言にすぎず、法的な効力をもっていない。それを解決するためにつくられたのが、いわゆる国際人権規約(1976年発効)、つまり「経済的、社会的及び文化的諸権利に関する国際規約」(A規約)、「市民的及び政治的権利に関する国際規約」(B規約)、「市民的及び政治的権利に関する国際規約についての選択議定書」である。日本は1979年(昭和54)にA規約とB規約について批准したが、選択議定書などの一部については留保している。

[池田政章]

明治憲法における人権

西欧諸国の人権宣言は、明治憲法にも大きな影響を与え、その憲法起草者である伊藤博文(いとうひろぶみ)自身も、権利の保障を伴わないならば憲法を制定する意味が失われるといったほどである。しかし、明治憲法は、天皇主権の原理に立脚し、天皇が神の権威に基づいて日本を統治するというたてまえをとったので、国民も天皇の統治に服する「臣民」と考えられ、固有の意味の人権は認められなかった。また、外国の人権宣言の影響を受けて、信教の自由、言論の自由、集会・結社の自由、居住・移転の自由、人身の自由、住居の不可侵、財産権の不可侵などを保障する規定が明治憲法にもあったが、法律でそれらを制限することが許され、実際に法律によって制限された。たとえば、人身の自由の場合、憲法の精神に沿って法律もできていたのにもかかわらず、実際にはそうした精神を無視した人権蹂躙(じんけんじゅうりん)が行われた。

[池田政章]

基本的人権と日本国憲法

以上述べたような状態は、第二次世界大戦後に制定された日本国憲法のもとですっかり変わった。すなわち、天皇主権にかわって国民主権が根本原理となるとともに、固有の意味の基本的人権がここで初めて認められた。

 日本国憲法は、基本的人権の尊重をその根本原理とし、その第3章「国民の権利及び義務」で、基本的人権を「侵すことのできない永久の権利」(憲法11条・97条)としてこれを保障している。そこで規定されている基本的人権には、次のようなものがある。

[池田政章]

自由権

保障する対象によって、精神的自由権、人身の自由、経済的自由権に分けることができる。精神的自由権とは、国家権力から個人の精神の解放を保障する権利で、具体的には、思想および良心の自由(憲法19条)、信教の自由(憲法20条)、集会・結社および表現の自由(憲法21条1項)、学問の自由(憲法23条)、検閲の禁止・通信の秘密(憲法21条2項)が規定されており、明治憲法下におけるような思想のために罰せられるということはなくなった。

 さらに、個人の身体がなにものからも、とくに国家権力から自由であることは、人間の最小限度の要求であって、憲法はこの人身の自由を保障するため多くの保障を設けた。そこには、奴隷的拘束および苦役からの自由(憲法18条)と法定手続の保障(憲法31条)、および被疑者・刑事被告人の権利(憲法37条)が保障され、厳しい要件を定めて国家権力の濫用を制限している(憲法32条~39条)。また、近代市民社会の確立のためには、経済の自由が確立されなければならない。日本国憲法も経済的自由権を保障したが、同時に自由主義経済の無制限な放任は社会の腐敗を招くので、この見地から公共の福祉による制限も認められている。職業選択の自由(憲法22条1項)、財産権(私有財産制)の不可侵(憲法29条)のほか、居住・移転の自由、外国移住の自由、国籍離脱の自由(ともに憲法22条)が、沿革的に経済的自由権に属するとされる。

[池田政章]

参政権

国民が政治に参加する権利をいい、具体的には議会議員の選挙権・被選挙権のほか、直接民主制的諸権利や請願権がこれに属する。日本国憲法は、国民主権を原理とし、政治のあり方を終極的に決めるものは国民であるとする。そこで、「公務員を選定し、及びこれを罷免することは、国民固有の権利である」(憲法15条1項)と規定しているが、すべての公務員を選定・罷免することは実際には不可能なので、国会議員および地方公共団体の長と議員の選定権、最高裁判所裁判官の国民審査、地方公共団体の長と議員などの解職請求を認め、他の公務員は議会もしくは行政部によって選ばれることにしている。このことは代表民主制のたてまえから正当化されるが、代表民主制はともするとその機能が鈍化し、国民各層の要求や希望が伝達されにくいという弊害を生じやすいので、その通路を開く意味で、請願権(憲法16条)が規定されている。公務員の選挙については、成年者による普通選挙を保障し、かつ、選挙における投票の秘密を保障している(憲法15条3項・4項)。

[池田政章]

社会権

日本国憲法は新しく社会権を規定している。生存権、教育を受ける権利、勤労の権利などがこれである。まず、生存権の保障のため、健康で文化的な最低限度の生活を営む権利を規定(憲法25条1項)、その具体化として、生活保護法、国民健康保険法をはじめとする社会諸立法によって生活の福祉の増進が図られている。次に機会均等な教育を受ける権利と義務教育の保障が規定され、小・中学校の9か年の義務教育についてこれを無償としている(憲法26条)。また、生存権の実質的な保障のためには勤労の権利の確保が必要であり、憲法で規定(憲法27条)するとともに、国家は労働の機会提供について、職業安定法、雇用保険法などを制定し、労働基準法を設けて勤労条件に関する基準を定め、児童の酷使などを禁止している。なお、権利と同時に義務を負うことをも規定している。さらに、使用者の経済的優位に対抗して契約の実質的平等を確保するために、「勤労者の団結する権利及び団体交渉その他の団体行動をする権利」(憲法28条)を保障している。勤労者の団結権、団体交渉権、団体行動権(争議権など)を労働三権という。

[池田政章]

基本的人権と法令審査権

明治憲法のもとでは、裁判所は法令審査権(違憲立法審査権)をもっていなかったから、憲法の保障する自由権を侵害する法律ができたとしても、裁判所はそれをそのまま適用するほかはなかった。これに対して、日本国憲法ははっきり裁判所の法令審査権を認めている(憲法81条)から、かりに国会の多数で基本的人権を侵害する法律をつくったとしても、それに関連した裁判において、裁判所はそれを違憲としてその適用を拒否することができる。ただし、人権の種類によって違憲審査の基準は異なり、精神的自由は経済的自由より厳しく審査されるし(二重の基準の理論)、社会権の審査については国会の意思が尊重されることが多い(立法裁量)という違いがある。それでもこれによって基本的人権の保障は確実なものとなったといわれる。最高裁判所が「憲法の番人」であるといわれるのは、裁判所がこういう審査権によって、憲法の規定が国会によって破られるのを防ぐ役割を担っているからである。

[池田政章]

『東京大学社会科学研究所編『基本的人権』全5巻(1968~69・東京大学出版会)』『佐藤幸治・初宿正典編『人権の現代的諸相』(1990・有斐閣)』『戸波江二・安念潤司・松井茂記・長谷部恭男著『憲法2 人権』(1992・有斐閣)』『野中俊彦・中村睦男・高橋和之・高見勝利著『憲法Ⅰ』第4版(2006・有斐閣)』『長谷部恭男他編『岩波講座 憲法2 人権論の新展開』(2007・岩波書店)』『高木八尺・末延三次・宮沢俊義編『人権宣言集』(岩波文庫)』『阿部照哉・種谷春洋・佐藤幸治・中村睦男他著『基本的人権の歴史』(有斐閣新書)』

[参照項目] | 憲法 | 国際人権規約 | 参政権 | 社会権 | 自由権 | 人権宣言 | 人身の自由 | 世界人権宣言 | 日本国憲法

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

<<:  Basic Law - Kihonho

>>:  Basic star catalog

Recommend

General Trade Union of Japan (English: Zŏng gōng huì)

The All-China Federation of Trade Unions (AFCTU) i...

Cape floral kingdom

…There are nearly 10,000 endemic species, includi...

Pseudonestor xanthophrys (English spelling)

...On the other hand, those that feed mainly on s...

Adashino

Located in Saga, Kadono County, Yamashiro Province...

Middlemarch - Midorumarch (English spelling)

A masterpiece by the British female novelist Geor...

Hashimoto

A district in Yawata City, Kyoto Prefecture. It i...

Unden Shinto - Unden Shinto

〘Noun〙 A sect of Shinto. It was advocated by Jion ...

Ternate Island (English spelling) Pulau Ternate

A small island in the northern part of the Maluku ...

authentic movement

…This theme was dramatically played out in the yo...

Finlay, AC (English spelling) FinlayAC

...It has antibacterial properties against a wide...

Hung Vuong (English spelling)

The title of the 18th king of Van Lang, the origin...

Elements of Chemistry

…He also studied the diffusion of liquids, named ...

High bush blueberry

...Three groups of blueberries are important in t...

Izumi Mountains

A mountain range stretching 50 km from east to we...

Bratton, H.de (English spelling)

…English clergyman and judge. His real name was B...