Functionalism

Japanese: 機能主義 - きのうしゅぎ(英語表記)functionalism
Functionalism
In contrast to constructivism, or structural psychology, held by Titchener, EB, which seeks to analyze consciousness to discover its components and clarify the state and laws of their combination, functionalism, or functional psychology, is a position that seeks to clarify the role and function that consciousness plays when living organisms adapt to their environment.

Darwin, C.'s idea of ​​evolution, which states that in the struggle for survival, the fittest survive and those who are unable to adapt are eliminated (1859), was welcomed in America, a country of free competition and pragmatism, but constructivist psychology, which is static and denies practicality, was not accepted. The theory of evolution was strongly reflected in the American James, W.'s Principles of Psychology (1890) through Spencer, H. (1870), who advocated a psychology that assumes the purposefulness of mental life, saying, "Our ways of feeling and thinking are what they are because they serve to shape our reactions to the external world," and built the foundations of functionalist psychology. Building on this foundation, Dewey, J. made the position of functionalist psychology clearer in his essay "The Concept of the Reflex Arc in Psychology" (1896). In the conventional idea of ​​the reflex arc, the three elements of sensory stimulus, central connections, and motor response were considered separately, lacking organic unity, but the arc is originally part of a circle, and it only has meaning when placed within the circle as a whole. Dewey argued that the circle is coordination, and that each element has meaning only when it is coordinated for the purpose of adaptation, and this became the declaration of independence of functionalist psychology. However, it was Dewey's successor, Angell, Jr., also at the University of Chicago, who established functionalist psychology as a school of thought. He clearly systematized functionalist psychology in his paper "The Sphere of Functionalist Psychology" (1907), and thus made the Chicago School, the foundation of which Dewey had built, an unshakable stronghold of functionalist psychology.

In this paper, Angel lists three characteristics of functionalist psychology: (1) It is a psychology of mental operations, not of mental elements; that is, it is a psychology of the "how" and "why" of consciousness, not of the "content" of consciousness; (2) It is a psychology that is concerned with the utility of consciousness, that is, how consciousness mediates between the demands of the environment and the needs of the organism. In this pragmatic view, the utility of consciousness is manifested in adaptive behavior; (3) It is "a kind of psychophysics" that seeks to clarify the interrelationship between the physical and mental parts of the organism. Since the physical parts are physiological processes, functionalist psychology is a branch of biology that "translates" mental processes into physical processes and vice versa.

This line of thinking led to the development of various areas of dynamic psychology and applied psychology, which were not expected from constructivist psychology. Many prominent functionalist psychologists, including Carr, HA, who was a moderate functionalist and Angell's successor, and Watson, JB, who advocated radical behaviorism, were trained at the University of Chicago.

Columbia University was another base of functionalist psychology. The idea of ​​individual variation within a species, which is the premise of evolutionary theory, was developed by Galton, F. into the study of individual differences, and Cattell, JM, who moved to Columbia University in 1891 under his strong influence, played a central role in laying the foundations for mental tests, among others. Columbia University produced such scholars as Woodworth, RS, who advocated dynamic psychology, valued the role of motivation, and presented a system as the Columbia School, Thorndike, EL, who advocated trial-and-error learning, and Thurstone, LL, who proposed the theory of intelligence factors based on factor analysis. Other promoters of functionalist psychology outside of the Chicago and Columbia schools include Hall, GS, who built the foundations of child and adolescent psychology, and Baldwin, JM, a pioneer in developmental and social psychology. →Constructivism [Imada Hiroshi]

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Japanese:
意識を分析してその構成要素を発見し,その結合の状態と法則を明らかにしようとするティチェナーTitchener,E.B.の構成主義structuralismあるいは構成主義心理学structural psychologyの立場に対して,意識が,生活体が環境に適応する時にどのような役割・機能を果たすかを明らかにしようとする立場が機能主義,あるいは機能主義心理学である。

 生存への努力の中で適者が生き残り,適応できぬ者が淘汰されるというダーウィンDarwin,C.の進化論の考え(1859)は,自由競争と実用主義pragmatismの国アメリカで歓迎されたが,静的で実用性を否定する構成主義心理学は受容されなかった。進化論はスペンサーSpencer,H.(1870)を通してアメリカのジェームズJames,W.の『心理学原理』(1890)に色濃く反映され,ジェームズは,「われわれの感じ方,考え方は,それがわれわれの外的世界に対する反応を形作る上に役立つから現在のようなものになった」と,心的生活の有目的性を前提とした心理学を唱え,機能主義心理学の基礎を築いた。その基礎に立つデューイDewey,J.は,その論文「心理学における反射弧の概念」(1896)において機能主義心理学の立場をより明確にした。従来の反射弧の考えでは,感覚的刺激-中枢的結合-運動的反応の三要素がばらばらに考えられ,有機的統一を欠いていたが,弧arcは元来円の一部であって,全体としての円の中に位置づけられてこそそれは意味がある。その円とは調整coordinationであって,各要素は適応という目的の中で調整されていてこそ意味があるとデューイは主張し,これが機能主義心理学の独立宣言になった。しかし機能主義心理学を一つの学派として確立させたのは,同じシカゴ大学のデューイの後継者エンジェルAngell,J.R.であった。彼は論文「機能主義心理学の領域」(1907)によって機能主義心理学を明確に体系化し,これによってデューイによって基礎が作られたシカゴ学派を機能主義心理学の揺るがぬ牙城とした。

 この論文でエンジェルは機能主義心理学の特徴を3点挙げている。⑴それは心的要素の心理学ではなく,心的作用mental operationの心理学である。つまり意識の「内容content」の心理学ではなくて,意識の「はたらきhow」と「理由why」の心理学である。⑵それは意識の効用utility,すなわち,意識が環境の要求と生活体の必要の間をどのように媒介するかに関心をもつ心理学である。このような実用主義的な考えでは,意識の効用は適応的行動になって現われる。⑶それは生活体の身体的な部分と心的な部分の相互の関係を明らかにしようとする「一種の心理身体学psychophysics」である。身体的な部分というのは生理過程であるので,機能主義心理学は心的過程を身体的過程に,あるいはその逆に「置き換えるtranslate」生物学の一領域である。

 このような考えから,構成主義心理学からは期待されない動的な心理学の諸領域や応用心理学が発展することになる。なおシカゴ大学ではエンジェルの後継者の穏健な機能主義者のカーCarr,H.A.をはじめ,過激な行動主義を唱えたワトソンWatson,J.B.ほか,多くの著名な機能主義心理学者が育った。

 機能主義心理学の今一つの拠点はコロンビア大学であった。進化論が前提とする種内の個体変異の考えはゴールトンGalton,F.によって個人差研究へと発展し,その影響を強く受けて1891年にコロンビア大学に移ったキャッテルCattell,J.M.は,メンタルテストの基を築くなど中心的役割を果たした。コロンビア大学からは,動的心理学を唱え動機の役割を重んじコロンビア学派として一つの体系を示したウッドワースWoodworth,R.S.,試行錯誤学習のソーンダイクThorndike,E.L.,因子分析による知能因子説を唱えたサーストンThurstone,L.L.などが育った。シカゴ,コロンビア学派以外の機能主義心理学の推進者としては,児童・青年心理学の基礎を築いたホールHall,G.S.や発達心理学や社会心理学の先駆者のボールドウィンBaldwin,J.M.などを挙げることができる。 →構成主義
〔今田 寛〕

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