In a broad sense, it refers to any phenomenon occurring in the external world surrounding living things that is harmful to them. In a narrow sense, it refers to any phenomenon in which human activities interfere with the environment surrounding human beings or with nature as a whole, causing adverse effects. There is no doubt that today's civilization was built as a result of humankind's ceaseless attempts to challenge nature. However, when human power becomes too great and nature is no longer able to contain it, the equilibrium of nature will be on the verge of collapse. The Earth system is made up of various subsystems, large and small, which are intertwined and integrated. However, as human power expanded, it was as if a system unique to humans was constructed that was in opposition to nature. Moreover, when humankind placed industry at the core of its industry and established a mechanical civilization by utilizing large amounts of energy through the use of fossil fuels, this power not only plundered nature and wasted resources, but also generated large amounts of pollutants and scattered them in the natural world. This has brought direct and indirect disaster to the life and health of humanity itself, beginning to destroy the human system from within, and even threatening to put the Earth, the natural system on which the human system exists, in danger. This situation began to progress with the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. In particular, after World War II, the problem suddenly became serious when heavy chemical industries, centered on the petrochemical industry, expanded worldwide due to technological innovation that incorporated the results of advanced military science. During this period, not only did energy consumption and exploitation of nature increase by several orders of magnitude, but large amounts of unknown substances were produced one after another, shaking nature to its very core. Thus, the Earth, which humanity once believed it could depend on indefinitely, came to be likened to a small spaceship. This is the characteristic of modern environmental issues. [Yutaka Matsuda] Characteristics of modern environmental issuesUrban and Environmental IssuesGenerally, environmental problems first appeared as health hazards caused by pollution and land devastation caused by uncontrolled development, but what has made modern environmental problems even more serious is the urbanization that accompanies industrialization. With the progress of industrialization, first in industrially developed countries, modern cities based on industry developed rapidly, and the majority of the population began to concentrate in these cities. Cities are artificial systems by nature, and are more or less isolated from nature. As such, cities require many facilities and systems to replace the functions that nature normally performs, and to supplement the functions that nature has become less able to perform due to the high density of cities. These span all aspects of urban activity, from roads and communication networks to improve and maintain urban functions, to markets, water supplies, sewers, waste disposal systems, sanitation management, safety management, and disaster prevention systems that are related to the lives of citizens. There are considerable disparities in the availability of such facilities depending on the era. When modern cities first emerged in the 19th century, the basis of urban management was a trend that placed the greatest value on acquiring wealth and securing profits, a characteristic of the modern era. This led to a tendency to place emphasis on urban functions solely on the development of production infrastructure, while neglecting the residential functions of residents, resulting in a severe shortage of such facilities. This directly and indirectly caused the outbreak of various environmental and urban problems, such as poverty, housing shortages, water shortages, unsanitary conditions, the spread of epidemics, transportation difficulties, and pollution. Ironically, these cities became the economic, social, political, and cultural backbones of a country, and the majority of the population was confined to cities, where they spent their entire lives and had to raise the next generation of young people. In the UK, which led the way in industrialization, environmental problems intensified as early as the 19th century, causing severe social conflict along with labor problems. This situation occurred in every country as the Industrial Revolution progressed, and the later a country was to develop industry, the more it struggled to catch up with industrially advanced countries, making the situation even more serious. The essence of this urban problem remains the same even today. With the development of heavy and chemical industrialization, the concentration of industrial population in cities worldwide intensified, and as a result, cities were transformed once again, and modern cities, symbolized by megacities, developed rapidly. This was made possible by the spread of motorization. These modern cities are characterized by their huge urban areas and ultra-high density. This became a major factor that worsened environmental problems even more than in modern cities, and led to a mountain of problems that could cause these huge structures to lose their functionality. [Yutaka Matsuda] Characteristics of environmental issues in JapanJapan, which embarked on modernization about 100 years after the West with the Meiji Restoration, could be said to have been in a pre-modernization stage until around 1950 (Showa 25). During this time, as an industrially backward country, Japan was faced with the strain of trying to rapidly industrialize at the expense of farmers and agriculture, resulting in a number of tragic disasters, such as the Ashio Copper Mine Pollution Incident. This incident could be considered the prototype of the pollution and environmental problems that followed. On the other hand, in cities, Japan's backwardness helped to alleviate various environmental problems. The cities of this era directly reflected the backwardness of the Japanese economy, and as a whole, social capital was poor for a modern city. In addition, they were busy developing their production base, and were extremely reluctant to invest in new social capital related to daily life. However, during the 300 years of peace in the Edo period, castle towns, temple towns, commercial and industrial towns and other areas developed in a diverse range, and social capital was provided in residential areas to a certain extent, providing urban facilities and forming good residential areas for feudal cities. In Japan, modern cities have developed while making use of such feudal cities, but because this modernization was incomplete, the image of traditional feudal cities that took care of daily life remained strong, and overall the city functions in both production and living were well balanced. Today, cities that have not been modernized and have escaped the damage of war have retained their feudal streetscapes along with their cultural traditions, which have become tourist attractions and national cultural assets (historic environments) that bring peace of mind to people. Movements to preserve streetscapes are active in these cities. Another reason for the mitigation of environmental problems is that the rural population now accounts for more than half of the total population, and urban residents also base their social base in the rural areas, so for the majority of urban residents, cities have become a temporary place of residence. [Yutaka Matsuda] Transformation of cities during the period of rapid economic growthThe "high economic growth" that began in the 1950s during the latter stages of Japan's modernization transformed cities, and modern cities suddenly emerged. From this period onwards, Japan began to rapidly concentrate industry and population in cities, and in the following 20 years, Japan achieved in one fell swoop what industrialized countries had experienced over 100 years since the 19th century. During this period, the urban population exceeded 75%, and industry and population were concentrated and flowed into the three major metropolitan areas, including Tokyo, as well as into regional core cities, with an estimated 40 million people moving nationwide. During this turbulent period, the vestiges of feudal cities were completely wiped out, for better or worse. Urban facilities that had been accumulated in small amounts from before were fully utilized for production functions, and 70% of additional social capital investment was allocated with a focus on improving the production infrastructure. The urban areas in the city center, which had a good number of urban facilities, were gradually taken over for business use, while residential areas were pushed out to the periphery of the city, where urban facilities were underdeveloped. In addition, the development of automobile traffic, which was the basis of the establishment of modern cities, became the main cause of urban environmental destruction, including air pollution, noise, and traffic accidents. As a result, in the 1970s, major cities in particular experienced a variety of unrest, including pollution incomparable to that of previous cities, a shortage of housing and land, traffic disasters, transportation difficulties for commuters, a deadlock in waste disposal as seen in the "Garbage Wars," and environmental destruction due to the concentration of population around cities. At the same time, during this period, factory-related pollution such as Minamata disease and Yokkaichi asthma, large-scale environmental destruction such as the formation of coastal industrial zones, and the devastation of land nationwide due to the reckless felling and development of forests and other areas were progressing. During periods of economic expansion, in an attempt to increase the competitiveness of companies, each company makes excessive investments in production facilities, while cutting corners as much as possible on the treatment of waste and emissions that do not directly lead to an increase in production, and tends to simply discharge them outside. As a result, the region and its residents have to bear the burden of treating the waste, making some sacrifices. During periods of high economic growth, this external burden economy occurred on a large scale. In addition, a lack of experience in dealing with environmental issues exacerbated the problem. It was not possible to predict, or was not possible to make sufficient predictions, that business activities such as huge facilities like petrochemical complexes or high-density factories would far exceed the buffering capacity of nature, leading to severe pollution in Minamata and Yokkaichi, and a major disaster that took many lives and health. In addition, the destruction of nature and the devastation of the country due to excessive deforestation could not be ignored. Half of Japan's coasts were artificialized to expand petrochemical complexes and cities, and in order to alleviate the housing shortage of residents who were pushed to the outer edges of cities, the suburbs of cities were developed on a large scale. These have become major causes of environmental degradation and disasters. [Yutaka Matsuda] CountermeasuresEnactment of various pollution-related lawsIn the UK, the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, measures against the deterioration of urban environments began as early as the 19th and early 20th centuries. In order to prevent various types of nuisance, the legal doctrine of nuisance was utilized and various laws incorporating this legal doctrine were enacted. In response to the worsening industrial pollution, laws related to the prevention of pollution, such as the Alcaly Act (a law enacted in the UK in the 19th century to prevent air pollution caused by the chemical industry), were also enacted as administrative controls. In addition, the Public Health Act was also enacted during this period, and the prototypes of modern environmental conservation laws such as pollution prevention and sanitation measures were all established during this period. Similarly, during this period, laws and systems related to urban environmental improvement through urban planning, nature conservation, and land conservation, such as the Town and Country Planning Act, were established one after another in the UK and other Western countries. This awareness of environmental issues based on civic common sense continues to live on not only in the UK but also in the industrialized countries of Europe and the US. One example of this is the activities of the Club of Rome, a group of private experts, which, in 1968, faced the current global environmental crisis, issued several declarations that pursued the causes analytically and from a civilizational perspective and included concrete measures. In particular, in its 1972 report, The Limits to Growth, it issued a stern warning from the perspective of protecting the planet as a whole, regarding the waste and depletion of resources, pollution, destruction of nature, and deterioration of the living environment, as being caused by the current trend of human beings expanding productivity in accordance with their insatiable desires. In response to the current environmental crisis, the United States enacted NEPA (The National Environmental Policy Act) in 1970 as a charter for environmental protection policy, and established the Environmental Advisory Council in the Executive Office of the President to implement this policy. In Japan, the Tokyo Metropolitan Pollution Prevention Ordinance was enacted in 1969, which played a groundbreaking role as a practical measure. In the "Pollution Diet" of 1970, under the pressure of a strong public opinion, various pollution-related laws were established, including a fundamental revision of the Basic Law for Pollution Control (abolished in 1993 with the enforcement of the Basic Law for the Environment). At that time, the Environment Agency (now the Ministry of the Environment) was launched to implement these laws. In 1973, the Nature Conservation Law, which aims to conserve the natural environment, and the Urban Green Space Conservation Law, which aims to conserve the environment within cities, were enacted. In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm adopted the "Declaration on the Human Environment," which set out international guidelines for the future of the environment. The gist of the Declaration was that the human environment should not be deteriorated by human development in science and technology, that the environment should be preserved and improved so that humans and nature can coexist, and that harmony between humans and humans and between humans and the environment should be respected. The day this declaration was adopted, June 5th, was designated Earth Day (World Environment Day) and a global event was held. [Yutaka Matsuda] OECD reportIn 1978, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) reviewed environmental problems in Japan and submitted a report. The report pointed out that (1) the prevention and improvement of factory pollution (which was the worst in the world) had been effective, (2) urban pollution had been prevented, if not improved, but (3) measures to address the poor urban environment, especially the residential environment, had not been adequately implemented, and urban residents' dissatisfaction with the environment had not been resolved. Around this time, the "rabbit hutch" theory was circulating overseas as a symbol of the poor urban residential environment in Japan. Indeed, when considering modern cities as a whole environmental problem, it is important to achieve a high quality of the living environment as a whole, including the size of housing, the quality of the residential environment, commuting distance, and ensuring the quality of urban facilities, along with the elimination of various types of pollution. Today, there are endless reports of mental instability and accumulated fatigue among residents of large cities, and of signs of physical and psychological abnormalities, especially among young children, and it can be surmised that these poor living conditions may be related to this. [Yutaka Matsuda] assignmentStarting with the pollution problem, various environmental problems have been pointed out one after another, and without resolving each of these, it has become difficult to live a safe and comfortable life. At the very least, along with measures against pollution, land destruction, and the deterioration of living environments, there is a demand to avoid the dangers of modern life, such as the damage caused by food additives and drugs, and to guarantee mental stability and health. We are currently entering a second technological revolution, with advanced technology dramatically changing the industrial structure. Reflecting this, modern cities have begun to change once again. In this period, a new awareness of environmental problems from three perspectives has become necessary. [Yutaka Matsuda] The future of environmental issuesFirst, in an urban society, the next generation of productive people must be nurtured within the cities. Since rural areas have already lost the social power to complement, let alone compete with, cities, the health of the city has come to determine the health of society as a whole. Secondly, advanced technology requires a large number of people to engage in knowledge-intensive work, and in order to relieve the stress caused by the harsh technical conditions and to be able to adapt to creative work, a good environment must be provided "outside the walls." Outside the walls means outside the companies and individual residences, and it will become necessary to provide an environment that includes the environment of the city and the region as a whole, and even an environment that satisfies cultural demands. Thirdly, the specific content of basic human rights in future urban societies will likely include being in a comfortable environment. Needless to say, environmental problems do not only occur in industrialized countries or within cities and have adverse effects on the residents. Like acid rain, which is currently an international issue in Western countries, large amounts of air pollutants emitted from certain countries or certain industrial areas spread to neighboring countries, causing widespread death or degeneration of forests and lakes, and greatly changing ecosystems. This has been a problem since the nature crisis in the 18th century, when the nature conservation movement became a national policy. There are also examples of factories with a high risk of generating pollution being moved to developing countries, bringing danger and disaster to the lives of residents and the surrounding environment, as seen in the disaster in Bhopal, India (1984), which is said to have resulted in thousands of deaths and injuries due to defective safety management at a chemical plant, and as a result, pollution is exported and national sentiment in the host country is aggravated. Furthermore, the most serious environmental problem on a global scale is the progression of desertification, which is the result of the large-scale felling of tropical rainforests in South America, Southeast Asia, and other areas. It has been pointed out from various quarters that this could lead to major changes in the world's weather. Pollution of the oceans, such as the Pacific Ocean, is also a cause of large-scale environmental deterioration. Thus, environmental destruction is progressing rapidly on a global scale due to the plundering of resources by industrialized countries, the widespread spread of pollution, and the overdevelopment of developing countries as global industrialization progresses. In order to prevent this catastrophic situation from progressing, human beings, who have become too powerful, must exercise self-restraint and seek harmonious development with themselves and with all of the nature around them. We are approaching an era in which human beings will destroy nature in order to pursue their immediate desires, but human wisdom is to find harmony between human beings and nature and, through self-restraint, to make repeated efforts to ensure that nature, and ultimately human beings, can live in peace. [Yutaka Matsuda] "Nature from an Ecological Perspective" by Kira Tatsuo (1971, Kawade Shobo Shinsha)" ▽ "Environmental Destruction and Social Costs" by K.W. Kopp, translated by Shibata Tokuei and Suzuki Masatoshi (1975, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "The Ecology of Finiteness" by Kurihara Yasushi (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "From Pollution to Environmental Issues" by Shibata Tokuei and Matsuda Taketaka, reprint (1984, Tokai University Press)" ▽ "Pollution Research Quarterly, edited by Tsuru Shigeto, Shoji Hikaru, and Shimizu Makoto (Iwanami Shoten)" [References] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [Supplementary materials] |Trees in arid regions are hard and have good thermal efficiency, so dead trees and branches have been used as fuel. However, because they grow very slowly, cutting down trees eliminates shade, dries out the land, and reduces grass. For this reason, livestock grazing can lead to overgrazing. Northernmost Cameroon © Yoshihiko Akagi "> Overcutting Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
広くは生物を取り巻いている外界に発生する、生物にとって有害な現象一般をいう。狭義には、人類の活動が人類を取り巻く環境あるいは自然総体に対して各種の干渉を行い、悪影響を生じさせる現象を取り上げていう。 今日の文明は、自然に対して人類が絶え間なく挑戦を試みた結果築かれたには違いない。しかし、人類の力があまりにも巨大化して、自然がこれを包摂できなくなったときには、自然の平衡状態が崩壊に瀕(ひん)することになる。地球としての系は、大小各種各様のサブシステムが相互に絡み合いながら、これらを統合して成り立っている。これが、人類の力の拡大につれて、あたかも自然に対立する人間独自の系が構築されたかのようになった。しかも、人類が工業を産業の中核に据え、化石燃料の利用により大量のエネルギーを駆使して機械文明を確立するようになると、この力によって自然を収奪して資源を浪費するばかりか、大量の汚染物質を生成して自然界にまき散らすようになった。 これが、人類自らの生命・健康に直接間接の災厄をもたらすようになり、人類の系を内部から崩し始め、さらには人類の系の存立基盤である地球としての系―自然までも危機に導くおそれを生じさせた。このような事態は18世紀の産業革命から進行し始めた。とりわけ、第二次世界大戦のあと、発達した軍事科学の成果を取り入れた技術革新により、石油化学工業を中心にした重化学工業が、世界的に拡大飛躍を遂げるようになると、問題が一挙に深刻になった。この時期に入ると、エネルギーの消費量や自然からの収奪は幾桁(けた)にも増加したばかりか、大量の未知物質が次々につくりだされて、自然を根底から揺り動かすようになった。こうして、かつては人類が無限に依存できると信じられていた地球が、小さな宇宙船に例えられるまでになった。 ここに、現代の環境問題の特色がある。 [松田雄孝] 現代の環境問題の特色都市と環境問題環境問題は、一般にはまず公害現象による健康被害、乱開発による国土の荒廃などとして現れたが、現代の環境問題をいっそう深刻にしたのは、工業化に伴う都市化現象である。工業化の進展によって、まず工業先進国においては、工業を基盤とする近代都市が急速に発達し、国民の大部分がこの都市へ集中するようになった。 都市は、元来が人工的なシステムであり、多かれ少なかれその内部では自然から遮断される。そこで、都市では、本来自然が営んできた作用の代替として、また都市が高密度なため自然の力が及びにくくなった作用の補強として、多くの施設やこれらを動かすシステムを必要とする。これらは都市機能を高め維持するための道路・通信網あるいは市民の生活にかかわる市場、水道、下水道、廃棄物処理システム、衛生管理、安全管理、災害対策と、都市活動のあらゆる方面にわたっている。 こうした施設には時代によって、かなりの偏りがみられる。19世紀の近代都市出現時では、都市経営の基本に、近代の特色である富の獲得、利潤の確保に最大の価値を置く風潮があり、これが都市の機能の重点をもっぱら生産基盤の整備へ傾けさせ、住民の居住生活機能を軽視する傾向をとらせたため、こうした施設が大きく不足することになった。それが、貧困、住宅難、水不足、不衛生、疫病の蔓延(まんえん)、交通難、公害等々と各種環境問題や都市問題を噴出させる直接間接の原因となった。皮肉なことには、こうした都市が一国の経済的、社会的、政治的、文化的基幹となり、国民の大部分が都市に囲い込まれ、その生涯を過ごし、次代の青少年を育てていかねばならなくなった。 工業化の先頭を進んだイギリスでは、19世紀には早くも環境問題が激化して、労働問題とともに厳しい社会的相克を引き起こしている。このような事態は、産業革命が進行する過程であらゆる国に発生しており、遅れて工業を進めたところほど、工業先進国に追い付くための無理が重なって、かえって事態を深刻にした。この都市問題の本質は、現代においても変わらない。重化学工業化の進展に伴って世界的に産業人口の都市集中がいっそう激しくなり、その結果、都市はふたたび変貌(へんぼう)して、巨大都市に象徴される現代都市が急速に発達した。これを可能にしたのはモータリゼーションの普及である。この現代都市は巨大な都市圏と超高密度性を特色とする。これが、近代都市以上に環境問題を悪化させる一つの大きな要因となり、この巨大な構築物の機能を失わせかねない難問を山積させるようになった。 [松田雄孝] 日本の環境問題の特色明治維新により欧米に約100年遅れて近代化に取り組んだ日本は、1950年(昭和25)ごろまでは、いわば近代化の前段階にあったといえる。この間にも、工業後進国としての無理から、足尾銅山鉱毒事件のような、農民と農業を犠牲にしても工業化の急速な進行を図ったことから発生した悲惨な災厄が少なからずあった。これは、その後の公害問題ないし環境問題の原型ともいえる事件であった。他方、都市では、その後進性がもろもろの環境問題を緩和することになった。この時代の都市は、日本経済の後進性をそのまま反映して、近代都市としては総体に社会資本が貧弱であり、加えて、生産基盤整備に追われて生活関連の新規社会資本投資には、きわめて消極的であった。 しかし、江戸時代300年の泰平期に、城下町、門前町、商工業の町などが多様に発達して、ある程度居住地を中心に社会資本が充足されて都市的設備を備え、封建都市としては良好な居住地を形成していた。わが国ではこのような封建都市を利用しながら近代都市が発達した経緯があり、しかもその近代都市化が不徹底であったため、生活に意を配った伝統的封建都市のおもかげを濃厚に残して、トータルには生産、生活両面にわたる都市の機能がバランスよく保たれる結果となった。 今日では近代化がついに及ばず、また戦災も免れた都市が、文化的伝統とともに封建都市の町並みを残し、それが観光の対象ともなって、人々の心に安らぎを与える国民的文化財(歴史的環境)になっている。町並み保存運動はこうした都市に盛んである。環境問題を緩和させたもう一つの理由には、農村人口が全人口のなかばを超え、都市住民も社会的基盤を農村に置いたため、大部分の都市住民にとって都市は仮の生活の場となっていた事情もある。 [松田雄孝] 高度成長下での都市の変貌日本近代化の後期1950年代からの「経済の高度成長」によって、都市は一変して、一挙に現代都市が出現するようになった。日本ではこの時代から、都市へ産業・人口が急速に集中するようになり、その後の20年間に日本は、工業先進国が19世紀から100年以上かけて経験したことを一挙に成し遂げた。この間に都市人口は75%を超え、とくに東京などの三大都市圏さらに地方基幹都市へ産業・人口が集中して流入しており、おそらく全国では4000万人が移動したと推定される。こうした激動期に、封建都市の名残(なごり)は良きにつけ悪(あ)しきにつけ、まったく払拭(ふっしょく)された。以前から細々ながら蓄積されていた都市施設は、生産機能にフルに活用され、加えて、追加的社会資本投資の70%は生産基盤整備へ重点的に配分された。都心部にある都市施設が充実した地域はしだいに業務用に占用され、住居地域は都市施設の未整備な都市の外縁へと押し出されていった。加えて、現代都市成立の基礎となった自動車交通の発達が、大気汚染、騒音、交通災害と、都市環境破壊の主役となってきた。 これによって1970年代には、大都市を中心に、それまでの都市とは比較にならない公害、住宅・宅地難、交通災害、交通通勤難、ごみ戦争のような廃棄物処理の行き詰まり、都市周辺の人口集中化に伴っての自然破壊など、さまざまな混乱が生じた。この時期、他方では水俣(みなまた)病、四日市喘息(ぜんそく)などの工場型公害と臨海工業地帯形成などの大規模自然破壊、また山林等の乱伐乱開発による全国的な国土の荒廃が同時に進行していた。 経済の膨張期には、企業の競争力を高めようと、各企業では生産設備に過大なまでの投資をしながら、直接生産量の増大につながらない排出物・廃棄物の処理については極力手抜きをし、そのまま外へ排出する傾向がある。結果として、排出されたものの処理は、地域やその住民がなんらかの犠牲を払って負担することになる。経済の高度成長期には、こうした外部負担経済化が大規模に生じた。またこうした環境問題に対する経験不足も問題を深刻にした。コンビナートのような巨大設備、あるいは高密度な工場などの事業活動が、自然の緩衝能力をはるかに上回ることを予想できなかったか、あるいは十分な予測を行うことを怠ったため、水俣、四日市などの激甚な公害となって、多くの人命や健康を奪う大惨事となった。また自然破壊、乱伐による国土の荒廃もゆるがせにできなくなった。日本の海岸のなかばを人工化してコンビナートや都市を拡大させ、さらには都市の外縁に押し出された住民の宅地難解消のために、都市の近郊が大規模に乱開発された。これらが環境悪化、災害の大きな原因になった。 [松田雄孝] その対策各種公害関係法の成立産業革命発祥の地であるイギリスでは、都市環境悪化の対策が早くも19世紀から20世紀初頭にかけて始められた。各種の生活妨害を防止するため、ニューサンスnuisanceの法理を活用し、またこの法理を導入した各種制定法を立法した。また激化する工場公害に対処して行政的取締り規制であるアルカリ規制法Alcaly Act(19世紀イギリスにおいて化学工業に伴う大気汚染を防止する目的で制定された法律)などの公害防止関連法の立法も行っている。このほか公衆衛生法の制定もこの時代であり、いわば現代の公害防止、衛生対策等環境保全関連法令の原型になるようなものが、この時代に一斉に整備されていった。同様にこの時期、都市農村計画法のような都市計画による都市の環境整備、自然保護、国土保全に関する法令諸制度も、イギリスをはじめ欧米諸国で次々に整備された。 こうした市民的良識に基づく環境問題への認識は、イギリスばかりでなく、欧米工業先進国の認識としても生き続けている。その一つの現れとして現代の地球規模の環境の危機に際して、1968年、民間有識者により構成されたローマ・クラブThe Club of Romeの活動があり、分析的にまた文明論的に原因を追求し、なおかつ具体的対策を盛り込んだ宣言を数次にわたって発表している。とくに、1972年の報告書『成長の限界』では、資源の浪費と枯渇、汚染、自然破壊、生活環境の悪化などについて、事態を人類が飽くなき欲望のままに生産力を拡大する現代の風潮によるものとしてとらえ、地球総体の保全の立場から厳しい警告を発している。同じように現代の環境の危機に対して、アメリカでは、1970年に環境保護政策の憲章としてNEPA(The National Environmental Policy Act国家環境政策法)を制定し、この政策の実施機関として大統領府に環境諮問委員会が置かれた。 日本においては、実質的施策として画期的役割を果たした1969年の東京都公害防止条例制定をきっかけに、大きく盛り上がった世論に押されて1970年の「公害国会」において、公害対策基本法(環境基本法の施行に伴い1993年廃止)の根本的改正をはじめ、各公害関係法が整備された。このとき環境庁(現、環境省)が発足して、これらの実施機関となった。引き続き、1973年には自然環境保全を目的とする自然環境保全法、都市内の環境保全を目的とする都市緑地保全法が制定された。1972年、ストックホルムにおいて開催された国際連合人間環境会議では「人間環境宣言」が決議され、今後の環境のあり方についての国際的指針が示された。その趣旨は、人間環境を人間の科学技術の発達により悪化させてはならないこと、また、人間と自然が共存できるような環境の保全と改善を目ざし、人間と人間、人間と環境の調和を尊重することなどである。この宣言採択の日6月5日をアースデーEarth Day(世界環境デー)として世界的に行事を行うことになった。 [松田雄孝] OECD報告1978年、OECD(経済協力開発機構)が、日本における環境問題のレビューを行い、報告書が提出された。そこでは、(1)(世界的に最悪の状態にあった)工場型公害の抑止改善は実効をあげた、(2)都市型公害も改善まではいかないが抑止された、しかし、(3)都市環境とりわけ居住環境の劣悪さに対する対策が十分でないため、都市住民の環境に対する不満感が解消されていない、と指摘した。この前後には、わが国の都市居住環境の悪さの象徴として、「ウサギ小屋」論が国外から流されていた。確かに環境問題総体として現代都市をとらえるとき、住居の広さ、住居地の環境の質、通勤の距離、都市施設の質の確保など生活環境総体の質の高さを実現することが、各種公害の除去とともに重要な要求となる。 今日、大都市の住民の精神的不安定、疲労感の蓄積、とくに幼小児における肉体的・心理的異常の徴候がみられるとの報告が後を絶たないのは、こうした居住環境の劣悪さがかかわっているのではないかと推測できる。 [松田雄孝] 課題公害問題を先駆にして、各種環境問題が次々と指摘され、いずれもその解決なしには、安全で快適な生活を送ることがむずかしくなってきた。少なくとも公害、国土破壊、居住環境悪化に対する施策とともに、食品添加物被害、薬害など現代の生活に及ぼす危険から免れ、精神的安定と健全さを保障することが求められるようになった。現在、第二の技術革新期を迎えて、高度技術が産業構造を大きく変えようとしている。これを反映して現代都市もふたたび変動を始めた。この時期、三つの方向からの環境問題に対する新たな認識が必要となってきた。 [松田雄孝] 環境問題の今後第一に、都市型社会においては、次代の生産の担い手を都市内において育てねばならない。すでに、農村は、都市に対抗する力はもとより、都市を補完するだけの社会的力を失っているだけに、都市の健全さが社会総体の健全さを左右するようになっている。 第二に、高度技術が、知識集約的業務に携わる大量の人材を要求し、ここでの厳しい技術的条件からくるストレス解消と、創造的作業へ適応できるためには、いわば「塀の外」に良環境を用意しなければならない。塀の外とは、企業および各住居の外のことで、その都市、その地域総体としての環境、さらには文化的要求を満たすことまで含めての環境を、いやおうなしに備えねばならなくなろう。 第三に、今後の都市型社会においての基本的人権の具体的内容としては、快適な環境に置かれることが、付け加わるであろう。 いうまでもなく、環境問題は工業先進国あるいは都市内部にだけ発生し、その住民に悪影響を与えるだけではない。現在、欧米諸国において国際問題化している酸性雨のように、特定国あるいは特定工業地帯から排出される大量の大気汚染物質が、周辺諸国にまで広がって、森林・湖水を広範囲に枯死あるいは変性させて、生態系を大きく変動させている。自然保護運動が、国策の域にまでなった18世紀の自然の危機以来の問題となっている。また、化学工場の安全管理に欠陥があったため、数千人におよぶ死傷者を出したといわれるインドのボパール市の災害(1984)にみられるように、公害発生の危険性が高い工場を開発途上国に進出させて、住民の生命と周辺の環境に危険と災厄をもたらし、結果として公害を輸出し、立地国の国民感情を悪化させている実例もある。 さらに、もっとも重大な地球規模にわたる環境問題として、南米、東南アジアなどの熱帯雨林を大規模に伐採したために発生している砂漠化の進行がある。これによって地球の気象が大変動をきたすおそれが、各方面から指摘されている。太平洋など海洋の汚濁も、大規模な環境悪化の要因である。このように、工業先進国による資源の収奪、公害の広域拡大、また世界的な工業化の進展に伴う開発途上国の乱開発などにより、地球規模での環境破壊が急速に進行している。 こうした、破滅的な状況を進行させないようにするには、力の強くなりすぎた人類が、自らと人類の周辺にあるすべての自然に対して、自己抑制をしながら調和のある発展を求めねばならなくなっている。目前の欲望を貫くために、人類が自然を崩壊させようとしている時代が現に迫っているが、人間の英知とは、人類と自然との調和をみいだし自らの自制によって、自然ひいては人類が平安に生き抜くよう努力を重ねることなのである。 [松田雄孝] 『吉良龍夫著『生態学からみた自然』(1971・河出書房新社)』▽『K・W・カップ著、柴田徳衛・鈴木正俊訳『環境破壊と社会的費用』(1975・岩波書店)』▽『栗原康著『有限の生態学』(岩波新書)』▽『柴田徳衛・松田雄孝著『公害から環境問題へ』再版(1984・東海大学出版会)』▽『都留重人・庄司光・清水誠編『公害研究』季刊(岩波書店)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [補完資料] |乾燥地帯の樹木は硬く熱効率がよいため、枯木や枝を燃料としてきた。しかし、生長が非常に遅いために、木を切ると日陰がなくなり、土地が乾燥し、草も減少する。そのため家畜が放牧されると過放牧となることがある。カメルーン最北部©赤木祥彦"> 過伐採 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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