Fortune telling - Fortune telling
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Among popular beliefs, this is a technique for judging omens. There are those that judge natural or physiological phenomena, and those that artificially create some phenomenon and try to predict something else based on the results of judging it. The things people try to know include the truth of things, the will of the gods, future events, and there are many different methods. Divination is an act of popular belief, so it exists in both the East and the West, and regardless of cultural level, but in primitive societies it is more often linked to politics and people have a strong trust in its results. In cultured societies it is seen as a hobby and has a stronger element of play. In Europe, astrology, which is said to have originated in Babylonia, and divination of internal organs using animal livers were developed early on. Other well-known divination methods include using a divining rod to find underground water or mineral veins, opening a book casually and using the first sentence that catches your eye as a guide, scripture divination, which Christians do with the Bible, and karuta divination, which uses playing cards. There are also some things that are common or similar to Japan, such as dream divination and tea divination. [Shoji Inoguchi] Chinese fortune tellingChinese divination has also had a strong influence on Japan. Typical examples are divination using animal bones or turtle shells (called boku) and divination using stalks and counting sticks (called zei). The shoulder blades of cattle are mainly used as animal bones, and the shells of the abdomen of turtles are mainly used. These are burned over a fire and the cracks that appear are used to tell fortunes. Specialists were appointed to make judgments. Divination is based on the arithmetic operations of yin and yang counting sticks and stalks (now there are 50 of them), and judgments are made by combining these. The Book of Changes, which is the source of the judgments, has been highly valued since ancient times as one of the Five Classics. Zhouyi, which applies the principles of the Book of Changes and uses stalks and counting sticks, has developed greatly among the general public, and many schools have been formed that incorporate the theories of the five elements and the Chinese zodiac. Later, divination using coins and other items rather than divining sticks or counting sticks became common. In ancient Japan, divination using deer bones was the norm, and was called Futomani. During the Nara period, the art of tortoise divination was imported from China, and it seems that people who passed on this art hereditarily lived in various regions, but the Engishiki records that the Imperial Court also gathered 20 divination specialists from the three provinces of Tsushima, Iki, and Izu. [Shoji Inoguchi] Japanese Fortune TellingFortune telling that appears in Japanese classics includes koto-uranai (divination by koto), uta-ura (divination by song), mizu-ura (divination by water), yuuke (divination by evening), tsuji-ura (divination by crossroads), hashi-ura (divination by foot), aura (divination by bird), ishi-ura (divination by stone), nage-ura (divination by throwing a stone), and kuji (lottery). Koto-uranai (divination by koto) is similar to the way that a shrine maiden summons a god, and while playing the monotonous tune of the koto, she would lure the person into a mystical state and make a judgment based on their words and actions. Uta-uranai (divination by song) was performed by the songs recited by the shrine maiden, and later on, the use of uta-uranai books and the Hyakunin Isshu (100 poems by one hundred poets). Mizu-uranai (divination by water) involved reflecting one's self in water before the gods, or drinking the water. Yuu-uranai (divination by evening) involved overhearing the words of passersby in the evening and making a judgment based on that. Tsuji-uranai (divination by crossroads) and Hashi-uranai (divination by bridges) were similar practices performed near crossroads and bridges, respectively. Foot divination was based on the number of steps taken, and there was also apparently a method in which people walked while chanting and were judged by the words spoken when they stopped. Bird divination was based on the sound of birds and the direction they flew, stone divination was based on lifting a specific stone and judging whether it would rise or fall and whether it felt heavy or light, and throwing divination was based on throwing an object. Stick divination, in which the direction a stick falls, is a similar type of divination, and later a method was developed in which a coin was thrown and the result determined by whether it was heads or tails. Lotteries are still popular today, and there are a variety of methods and tools for doing so. [Shoji Inoguchi] Purpose of fortune tellingThe purpose of divination can be summarized into three: the search for truth, selection and prediction of the future. First, the search for truth. The desire to know the truth of things is fundamental to humans. It is to know the cause of disasters, illnesses and deaths. The location of lost or stolen items, or the search for thieves, were also some of the purposes of divination. However, because the means and methods were arbitrary and often dependent on chance, more advanced scientific methods were devised and the search for truth through divination became a mere game. Next is the purpose of selection and choice. There are countless situations in life and daily life where we are forced to make a choice. In such cases, people with good judgment will decide their own direction and listen to the opinions of their parents, siblings, seniors and acquaintances. However, in reality, there are many people who rely on divination. The third purpose is prediction of the future. No one can know the future accurately. Science can be said to be a technique for predicting the future theoretically and empirically, but divination tries to grasp it intuitively. Religion also tries to understand things intuitively, but divination is more accidental and associative. What people actually want to know is whether they will be happy this year, whether they will be healthy, whether the harvest will be good or bad, whether the catch will be bad or bad, the outcome of hunting or mountain work, the success or failure of business, financial luck, weather and disasters, the success or failure of marriage, the gender of children, predictions of the future, etc., and the purposes of divination as practiced today are often very secular and utilitarian. [Shoji Inoguchi] How to tell fortuneThere are two methods of fortune telling: those that judge omens and those that can be called divination using a certain level of skill. Some omens are based on empirical knowledge, and some, like weather forecasts, can prove causal relationships, but in general the statistical processing techniques are poor, and intuition and association are the only standards for judgment. In ancient times, horoscopes, bone divination, and divination using stalks were well-known, but there are many other methods that require specialized knowledge and skills, such as those using dice, lotteries, palmistry, physiognomy, and bone physiognomy, and even in later times they have been mostly performed professionally by fortune tellers. The street divination vendors that have existed since the Edo period do not have specialized skills, and they simply roll up a piece of paper with the fortune result written on it into a rolled rice cracker called tsujiuransenbei, or sell them by standing at intersections. Currently, fortune telling is practiced in various places. There are two types: fortune telling that is of interest to everyone in group events such as village events, and personal fortune telling. Fortune telling for group events is often done by the local deity or in conjunction with a religious ceremony. There is toshiura, which is done at the beginning of the year to predict the fortunes and harvests of the year. It is often done from the end of the year to the New Year, or on Koshogatsu or Setsubun, and there are many types. For usubuse, after pounding the mochi (rice cakes) and while they are still soft, rice is spread on a tray and several mochi are lined up, each one being designated as an early rice cake, medium rice cake, late rice cake, etc. These are then placed in an upside-down mortar and taken out a few days later. The quality of the rice is predicted based on which mochi has the most rice grains attached to it. Sometimes the state of mold on the mochi is used to predict the quality of the rice harvest. Some of these fortune telling methods include putting small bamboo tubes into rice porridge and boiling it to see which tube has the most rice grains in it, lining up soybeans in the ashes of a hearth with the number of months in it and seeing the weather for each month by how they roast, playing games such as tug-of-war, sumo, horse racing and target shooting, with good fortune attributed to the winner, and judging by the direction in which the smoke from a bonfire will drift.Some of the more personal fortune telling methods include watching the rising of tea leaves to predict the arrival of visitors, or throwing a stone at a torii gate and saying that if it lands on the right spot, your marriage proposal will come true.Predicting the weather by observing the weather and observing the weather is also originally a type of fortune telling. Many of these divination techniques are contrary to modern science because they are intuitive and arbitrary and do not involve any experimental or argumentative processes; however, the very attitude of attempting to investigate the causal relationship between omens and outcomes based on empirical knowledge became a breeding ground for the development of modern science. [Shoji Inoguchi] Fortune telling from an anthropological perspectiveDivination among the peoples of the world takes many forms. However, what they all have in common is that their essence is to consider the appearance or state of a certain thing or phenomenon as a "sign" that gives some information separate from its empirical attributes, and to learn hidden facts, good fortune, and bad luck of the past, present, and future by deciphering and interpreting the sign. In other words, the signs used in divination are understood in a broad sense as symbols, and divination can be considered one of the symbol manipulation activities of humans. The things and phenomena used in divination can be broadly divided into (1) things related to humans, (2) natural objects and phenomena, and (3) tools and techniques devised for divination. [1] Human-Related (2) Divination based on spontaneous, unconscious actions that humans cannot control. One example is physiological actions such as sneezing, burping, and hiccups, with sneezing in particular being considered an omen of bad luck in many societies. Divination can also be based on habitual actions (habits, handwriting, etc.) or on actions seen or heard by others. Dream interpretation is also widespread around the world. In this case, the objects, colors, directions, and orientations that appear in the dream are interpreted based on the worldview and symbolic system of that culture. Divination based on the words and actions of shamans and mediums who are possessed by deities or spirits and in a state of ecstasy is also widely practiced. However, these are divination in the form of asking questions of gods, ancestors, spirits, etc., and can also be considered oracles or prophecies. (3) Other types of fortune telling include divination based on the year, month, date, time, and name of birth, as well as divination based on the feng shui of a house or grave. [2] Natural objects and phenomena (2) Divination using animals and plants. Divination is based on the behavior, cries, and shapes of birds and beasts. In particular, the appearance and behavior of certain birds are often the subject of divination. Birds can fly freely between heaven and earth, so they are considered to be intermediaries between heaven and earth and to convey the will of gods and spirits to humans. For example, the Iban ethnic group of Sarawak in western Borneo uses seven types of birds for divination. These birds are considered to be the sons-in-law of the supreme god and messengers who convey the will of the gods, and divination is based on the cries, flight, color, and shape of the birds. In many places, owls are considered to be bad luck birds, and for example, African tribes often consider them to be familiars of sorcerers. In addition, the appearance of abnormal animals and plants (for example, leucistic species) is also a subject of divination, and divination using animal internal organs (especially the liver) has been practiced since ancient times. For example, in Babylonia, the liver of a sheep offered to the gods was used to divine the will of the gods. [3] Tools and techniques invented for divination (2) Divination using hot water (such as the Japanese Kukatachi) or poison. For example, the Azande people use poison to divination chickens. Divination can be performed for personal or private purposes, or for social or public purposes. In the latter case, especially in ancient or primitive societies, divination became very important for the integrity of the state or community, and was often incorporated into public institutions. In addition, those who have mastered the art of divination, or fortune tellers, are not only feared by others, but also have high social authority and status, and sometimes kings themselves also serve as fortune tellers who divine the will of heaven or the gods. Divination is often considered unscientific, but the interpretation of signs is not done randomly from moment to moment, but has a consistent logic and forms a system. For example, the Iban people of Borneo believe that it is good luck for a bird to cross in front of a person from right to left, and bad luck if it does the opposite. The Perum people of India believe that it is good luck for a chicken killed in a baby's naming ceremony to have its right leg over its left leg. The Mayans of Mexico believe that in a healing ritual, if a chicken is sacrificed with its head facing east, the person will be cured. As shown by these examples, in many cases, the right, up, and east are considered good omens, while the left, down, and west are considered bad omens. Divination is often closely related to a dualistic worldview (there are also triadic, quaternary, and quinary theories). Diviners interpret signs based on such a worldview. However, there is often a lot of room for the fortuneteller's own interpretation, which can be exploited by the fortuneteller. In addition, the purpose of the divination and the social background of the client are often taken into consideration when making a judgment. For example, when divination is related to sorcery or witchcraft, the fortune teller will take into account various human relationships within society. [Itabashi Masami] "Japanese Folk Beliefs" by Shoji Inokuchi (1980, Kobundo) [Reference items] | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
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俗信のうち、予兆を判断する技術。自然現象や生理現象を判断するものと、人為的に何かの現象をつくりだし、それを判断した結果に基づいて、別の何かを予知しようとするものとがある。知ろうとする事柄は、物事の真実、神霊の意志、未来のできごとなどで、その方法はきわめて種類が多い。占いは俗信上の行為であるから、洋の東西、文化程度の高低にかかわらず存在するものであるが、原始的な社会では、より多く政治に結び付き、その結果に対する信頼も強い。文化的な社会では、趣味的にとらえられて遊びの要素が強まってくる。ヨーロッパでは、バビロニアにおこったといわれる占星術や、動物の肝臓などによって占う内臓占いが早くから発達し、また、占杖(うらづえ)によって地下水や鉱脈を探ろうとする占い法、なにげなく本を開いて、まず目に入った文章を指針にする開典占い、キリスト教徒がこれを聖書で行う聖典占い、トランプで占うカルタ占いなどが著名であるが、夢占いや茶占いのように、日本とも共通、類似のものもある。 ［井之口章次］ 中国の占い中国の占いは、日本にも強い影響を及ぼしている。代表的なものは、獣骨やカメの甲を使った占い（これを卜(ぼく)という）と、筮竹(ぜいちく)と算木を使った占い（これを筮(ぜい)という）である。獣骨はウシの肩甲骨、カメは腹部の甲を主として用い、これを火で焼いてできた「ひび」のようすから吉凶を占うもので、これを判断するためには専門の役職も置いた。筮は陰陽(いんよう)の算木と筮竹（いまは50本）の算術的操作に基づき、その組合せによって判断するもので、判断の典拠である『易経(えききょう)』は五経の一つとして古来重んじられてきた。『易経』の原理を応用し、筮竹と算木を用いた周易は、民間において大いに発展し、五行(ごぎょう)説や干支(かんし)説を取り入れた、いくつもの流派ができた。のちには筮竹も算木も使わず、銭などを用いる易占が一般化してきた。日本でも古代にはシカの骨による占いが基本で、太占(ふとまに)とよばれた。奈良時代には中国から亀卜(きぼく)の法が輸入され、各地にこの占いを世襲的に伝える者が住んでいたらしいが、朝廷でも対馬(つしま)、壱岐(いき)、伊豆(いず)の3か国から20人の卜部(うらべ)を集めたことが『延喜式(えんぎしき)』にみえている。 ［井之口章次］ 日本の占い日本の古典に現れる占いには、琴占(ことうら)、歌占(うたうら)、水占(みずうら)、夕占(ゆうけ)、辻占(つじうら)、橋占(はしうら)、足占(あうら)、鳥占(とりうら)、石占(いしうら)、投占(なげうら)、くじなどがある。琴占は巫女(ふじょ)の神降ろしと同類のもので、単調な琴の調べの間に神秘的な境地に誘い込み、その言動によって判断したものであろうし、歌占も巫女の唱える歌により、のちには歌占の本や「百人一首」を利用するようになった。水占は神前で水に姿を映し、あるいはその水を飲んで占った。夕占は夕方に道行く人のことばを小耳に挟み、それで判断するもので、辻占や橋占も、それぞれ辻や橋のあたりで同様のことをするものである。足占は歩数で判断するもので、また唱え言をしながら歩き、止まったときの語のいかんによって判断する方法もあったらしい。鳥占は鳥の鳴き声や飛ぶ方角により、石占は特定の石を持ち上げ、上がるか上がらぬか、重く感じるか軽く感じるかで占い、投げ占は物を投げて占う。杖(つえ)の倒れる方向で占う杖占(つえうら)も同類のもので、のちには銭を投げて表裏で判断する占いも発達した。くじはいまも盛んに行われ、種々の方式や道具がある。 ［井之口章次］ 占いの目的占いの目的は、真実の探求、選定・選択、未来の予測の三つに要約することができよう。まず、真実の探求である。物事の真実を知りたいという欲求は、人間にとって基本的なものである。災害や病気や死亡の原因を知ろうとする。失(う)せ物や盗品の所在、あるいは盗人の探求なども、卜占の目的の一つであった。ただ、その手段方法が恣意(しい)的であり、偶然に左右されることが多かったために、より進んだ科学的な方法が考え出され、卜占による真実の探求は、たあいない遊びになってしまった。次には選定・選択という目的がある。人生や日常生活のなかで選定・選択を迫られる場面が数限りなくある。そういう場合に、判断力のある人は、自分で自分の方向を決め、親兄弟や先輩、知友の意見を聞く。しかし現実には占いに頼る人も少なくない。3番目には未来の予測である。人はだれも未来を正確に知ることができない。科学は、理論的に実証的に未来を予測する技術だということができようが、卜占は直観的にそれをとらえようとする。宗教も直観的にとらえようとするが、卜占のほうが、より偶然的であり連想的である。実際に知ろうとしていることは、この1年を幸福に過ごせるかどうか、健康でいられるかどうか、農作の豊凶、漁の漁不漁、狩りや山仕事の首尾、商いの成否、金銭の運不運、天候や災害、結婚の成否、生児の男女や将来の予測などで、現在行われている卜占の目的とするものには、きわめて世俗的、功利的なものが多い。 ［井之口章次］ 占いの方法占いの方法には、前兆を判断するものと、一定の技術による卜占術というべきものとがある。前兆判断のなかには経験知識に基づくものもあって、天気予報のように因果関係の証明できるものもあるが、一般には統計処理の技術が拙劣であり、直観と連想だけが判断の基準になっている。卜占術には、古くは星占い、骨占い、筮竹(ぜいちく)によるものなどが著名であるが、賽(さい)を使うもの、くじによるもの、手相、人相、骨相などと、専門的な知識や技術を要するものが多く、後世も売卜者がほとんど職業的に行っている。江戸時代以来の辻占売りの類は、専門技術をもたないもので、辻占煎餅(つじうらせんべい)と称する巻煎餅の中に、占いの結果を書いた紙を巻き込んだり、辻に立って売ったりしたものである。 現在各地で行われている占いには、村など集団の行事として全員が関心をもつものと、個人的なものとがある。集団行事の占いは、氏神を中心に行われたり、神事に伴うものが多い。1年の初めにその年の吉凶や農作の豊凶を占うものに年占(としうら)がある。年末から正月にかけて、または小正月(こしょうがつ)や節分にすることが多く、種類も多い。臼伏せ(うすぶせ)は、餅(もち)をついて柔らかいうちに、盆に米を敷いていくつかの餅を並べ、一つ一つの餅を早稲(わせ)、中手(なかて)、晩稲(おくて)などと決めておく。それを臼を伏せた中に入れておき、数日後に取り出してみて、どの餅に米粒が多く付着しているかによって、稲のできを占う。ときには、餅にカビの生えている状態によって、作(さく)を占う場合もある。粥(かゆ)の中に小さな竹筒を幾本も入れて煮、どの筒に飯粒が多く入ったかをみる筒粥、いろりの灰に大豆(だいず)を月の数だけ並べ、焼けぐあいで月々の天気をみる豆占、綱引、相撲(すもう)、競馬(くらべうま)、的射(まとい)などをして、勝った側に幸があるとするもの、とんど焼の煙のなびく方角によって判断するものなどがある。個人的なものでは、茶柱の立つのを見て来客を予想したり、鳥居に石を投げ上げて、うまくのると縁談がかなうように言いはやしたりする。観天望気で天気を予想するのも、本来は占いの一種である。 これら占いの技術は、実験や論証の過程をもたず、直観的、恣意的なために近代科学に反するものが多いが、経験知識を基にして予兆と結果との因果関係を追究しようとする態度そのものは、近代科学を発達させる温床となった。 ［井之口章次］ 人類学からみた占い世界の諸民族の占いは、きわめて多くの形態をもつ。しかしその本質が、ある事物や現象の出現、状態などを、その経験的属性とは別のなんらかの情報を与える「しるし」と考え、そのしるしを解読したり解釈することによって、過去、現在、未来の隠された事実、吉凶などを知ることにあることは共通している。つまり、広い意味で占いに用いられるしるしはシンボルとしてとらえられており、占いは人間のシンボル操作活動の一つといえる。 占いに用いられる事物や現象は、〔1〕人間に関するもの、〔2〕自然物や自然現象、〔3〕占い用にくふう・考案された道具や技術、に大別できる。 〔1〕人間に関するもの (2)人間の統御できない、発作的、無意識の行動によって占う。その一つは、くしゃみ、げっぷ、しゃっくりなどの生理的動作で、とくにくしゃみは多くの社会で凶兆とされる。習慣的動作（癖(くせ)、筆跡など）や、見聞した他人の動作によって占う場合もある。夢占いも世界に広く分布している。この場合、夢のなかに現れた事物、色、方位、方向などがその文化の世界観や象徴体系に基づいて解釈される。神霊や精霊に憑依(ひょうい)されて忘我陶酔状態になったシャーマンや霊媒の言動による占いも広く行われている。ただしこれらは、神、祖霊、精霊などに問うという形の占いであり、託宣、予言ともいえる。 (3)そのほか、出生の年、月日、時間、名前による占い、家相や墓相占いなどがある。 〔2〕自然物や自然現象 (2)動物、植物を用いる占い。鳥類や獣の行動、鳴き声、形状によって占う。とくに特定の鳥の出現や行動がしばしば占いの対象になる。鳥は天と地の間を自由に飛び回れることから、天と地の媒介者、神や精霊の意志を人間に伝えるものとされる。例をあげれば、ボルネオ島西部のサラワクの民族集団イバンでは7種の鳥による鳥占いがある。これらの鳥は最高神の娘婿とされ、神の意志を伝える使者であり、鳥の鳴き声、飛び方、色、形などによって占う。フクロウが不吉な鳥とされる所は多く、たとえばアフリカの諸部族ではしばしば妖術(ようじゅつ)師の使い魔とされている。このほか、異常な動植物（たとえば白変種）の出現も占いの対象となり、また動物の内臓（とくに肝臓）を用いる占いが古くからあり、たとえばバビロニアでは神に捧(ささ)げたヒツジの肝臓で神意を占った。 〔3〕占い用にくふう・考案された道具や技術 (2)熱湯（日本の盟神探湯(くかたち)など）や毒物を用いる占い。たとえばアザンデ人はニワトリに毒を飲ませて占う。 占いは個人的、私的な目的で行われる場合と、社会的、公的な目的で行われる場合がある。後者の場合、とくに古代社会や未開社会では、占いは国家や共同体の統合にとって非常に重要なものとなり、しばしば公的制度に組み込まれている。また占いの技術を習得している者、占い師は、他の人々から恐れられるだけでなく、社会的権威、地位は高く、ときには王自身が天や神の意志を占う占い師を兼ねる。 占いは非科学的とみなされがちだが、しるしの解釈はでたらめにその場その場で行われるのではなく、そこには一貫した論理があり、一つの体系を形成している。たとえば、ボルネオ島のイバン人は、鳥が人の前を右から左へ横切るのは吉、逆は凶としたり、インドのプルム人は、子供の命名式のとき殺すニワトリの右足が左足の上にあると吉兆とする、あるいはメキシコのマヤ人の間では、病気治療儀礼のとき犠牲(いけにえ)のニワトリが首を東に向けて死ぬと病気が治るとする、などの例が示すように、多くの場合、右、上、東などは吉兆を示すとされ、左、下、西などは凶兆とみなされる。占いはたいてい二元論的世界観（三元論、四元論、五元論などもある）に密接にかかわっている。占い師はそのような世界観に基づいてしるしの解釈を行うのである。しかし、しばしば占い師自身の解釈の余地がかなり残されており、それが占い師に悪用されることもある。また占いの目的や依頼者の社会的背景を判断の材料に加えることも多く、たとえば邪術や妖術にかかわる占いの場合、占い師は社会内のさまざまな人間関係を考慮に入れる。 ［板橋作美］ 『井之口章次著『日本の俗信』（1980・弘文堂）』 [参照項目] | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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