Mansion - Mansion (English spelling)

Japanese: マンション - まんしょん（英語表記）mansion

Originally it meant a large mansion, but in Japan it is commonly used as a colloquial term for mid- to high-rise apartment complexes (and sometimes low-rise ones as well). Originally it was named by a private developer to differentiate it from public apartments and give it a high-class feel, but today it is used widely to include public housing.

[Takada Mitsuo]

Changes in apartment supply

The first apartments in Japan were supplied in Tokyo in the mid-1950s. After that, from the early 1960s to 1964 (Showa 39), when the Tokyo Olympics were held, there was a period called the first apartment boom in the metropolitan area. At that time, apartments were mainly urban housing with high-class facilities and specifications, and the majority of them were targeted at high-income earners such as company executives, managers, and entertainers. However, unlike today, about half were rental housing, and the number of units supplied was less than 1% of new housing. In the late 1960s, the second apartment boom appeared, and the demand expanded to the general public. Against the backdrop of rising land prices and the remoteness of residential areas, salaried workers who wanted to live close to their workplaces became the demanders of apartments as detached housing. In the third apartment boom in the early 1970s, against the backdrop of monetary easing and increased demand for home ownership, the housing and land situation became even more severe, locations were moving to the suburbs, and area development in the form of housing complexes was carried out in various places along with the boom in remodeling the archipelago. It was around this time that the supply of condominiums in the Kinki region began in earnest, and condominium construction began to become noticeable in cities outside the Tokyo and Kinki regions. In addition, business apartments for business use and one-room apartments also appeared in urban centers. The fourth condominium boom after the first oil shock was mainly to meet the housing demand of the generation born during the baby boom period after World War II. Around this time, suburban development, which had been active during the third boom, was curbed by guidelines from each local government, and the supply of new housing land also decreased due to tax reforms, so condominiums were once again located closer to the city center, and small-scale ones that utilized old land began to increase. These trends further enhanced the characteristics of condominiums as urban housing. In terms of quantity, approximately 97,000 units were supplied nationwide in 1978, exceeding the peak of the third boom, which was approximately 94,000 units in 1973, and the fourth boom continued for an unprecedented period, so it can be said that condominiums were established as urban housing. The fourth boom continued until the early 1980s, but then the bubble economy hit and land prices and construction costs soared, causing a decline in the number of homes supplied. However, after the bubble burst in 1994, the number of homes began to increase again, and as of 2002, there were approximately 170,000 homes supplied.

The above-mentioned changes in the supply of condominiums are also the result of industrial capital from a variety of industries entering this industry in large quantities, which is said to have relatively low barriers to entry. Today, the supply of condominiums is facing many more difficult problems than before, and many businesses are forced to withdraw during the recessionary periods between booms. At the same time, however, a social division of labor has been established in the business, and a model has become established in which experienced construction companies, design offices, consultants, etc. complement business owners to carry out the business. Separate from this trend, from the early 1970s, there has been an increase in small rental apartments run by small, micro-managed businesses, replacing the so-called "wooden apartments" of the past, and national and local governments are also working to establish loan systems for these.

[Takada Mitsuo]

Problems in the supply of condominiums and how to deal with them

In Japan, the mid-to-high rise housing complex was originally developed as public housing. Various developments have been made in its planning from the standpoint of ensuring a certain level of livability, and technical expertise has been accumulated by the Urban Renaissance Agency, local governments, local housing supply corporations, and other organizations. Today, privately-owned housing, which accounts for the majority of condominiums, can be said to have inherited and developed the former in some ways, but due to the supply principle of following the market mechanism based on profit motives, a technical system different from that of public housing is being formed as a whole. Private activities are recognized for their accurate understanding of demand and their ability to respond quickly, and it is true that projects that are desirable from the perspective of forming urban environments have been realized based on rapid improvements in technical capabilities through the principle of competition. However, on the other hand, there is a contradiction in that there is a large gap in standards, and there are many low-standard housing units, and these units may even win out in the market mechanism. This is strongly related to the aspect of condominiums as homeowners, and is an inevitable result of the mechanism in which the quality and price of housing as a "product" are determined based on the acquisition ability of homeowners, who are becoming younger and lower-income every year.

Furthermore, in the absence of a strong housing land supply policy today, and in the face of an absolute housing land shortage, the supply of condominiums has led to an increase in land prices to the point where they are above the ability of demand groups to purchase them. This not only puts pressure on household finances with home loans, but also makes it difficult to pay appropriate management fees, while at the same time restricting the supply of rental housing.

There are also problems with the mid- to high-rise housing style. For example, there are problems with the impact on the surrounding community, including the lack of sunlight, which became a social issue in the 1960s. In recent years, it has been pointed out in various quarters that daily life in high-rise housing in particular has an undesirable impact on vulnerable people such as young children and the elderly.

Issues of ownership form and management methods are also important. Condominiums are "sectioned ownership" under the Building Sectional Ownership Act (enacted in 1962, revised in 1983). This means that the building is owned and managed separately into "private areas" and "common areas," with the latter being managed jointly by the section owners who form a management association. However, the distinction between private areas and common areas is not necessarily clear technically, and the status of the latter in particular is unstable. Furthermore, there are many issues that require further consideration in the future, such as how the management association will be run, how management standards will be set, and how costs should be borne.

There are countless other problems facing condominiums, including issues surrounding the second-hand market and housing performance. Technical and institutional improvements to these issues are being considered individually, but there is a great need for further research and development, and it is desirable to implement policies from a comprehensive and systematic perspective. For example, supply plans and physical plans should be linked, designs should take into account the relationship with tenants, and some degree of occupancy restrictions should be put in place depending on the attributes of each dwelling unit. Furthermore, with regard to private condominiums for sale, appropriate public regulations and effective guidance must be put in place while making use of their development and supply energy.

[Takada Mitsuo]

"Japan Geodetic Society (ed.), Land Problem Series 13: Management of Apartment Complexes and High-Rise Buildings (1980, Yuhikaku)" ▽ "Kobayashi Seishu, Everything about Condominiums (1980, Kajima Publishing)" ▽ "Kajiura Tsuneo (ed.), Questioning Apartment Management (1983, Urban Culture Publishing)" ▽ "Kobe Urban Problems Research Institute (ed.), Issues and Prospects for Apartment Complex Management (1984, Keiso Shobo)" ▽ Maruyama Hideki (ed.), Apartment Expansion and Reconstruction: Is it Possible to Escape Overcrowding and Deterioration? (1991, Seibunsha)" ▽ "Japan Condominium Society, Condominium Stock Evaluation Research Group and Condominium Management Center (eds.), Making Apartments Last 100 Years: Housing in the Stock Era (2002, Ohmsha)" ▽ "Kamano Kuniki and Yamanome Akio (eds.), Condominium Law (2003, Yuhikaku)" ▽ "Japan Condominium Society, Condominium Studies 19: Special Feature: The Current State of Housing Complex Regeneration Theory (2004, Shinzansha Publishing) ▽ "Renovation of Apartment Complexes, edited by the Architectural Institute of Japan (2004, Gihodo Publishing)" ▽ "How Long Can You Live in an Apartment Complex? by Yoshiaki Fujiki (Heibonsha Shinsho)"

[Reference items] | Apartment complexes | Housing industry | Urban Renaissance Agency

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

本来は大邸宅の意味であるが、日本では中高層集合住宅（場合によっては低層をも含む）の俗称として一般に使われている。もともと民間の業者が公共アパートと異なる高級感を出す目的で名づけたものであったが、今日では公共住宅を含めて幅広く用いられている。

［髙田光雄］

マンション供給の推移

日本でマンションが最初に供給されたのは東京都で、1950年代中ごろのことである。その後、60年代初めから東京オリンピックの開かれた64年（昭和39）にかけて首都圏では第一次マンションブームとよばれる時期がある。当時、マンションは高級な設備、仕様をもつ都心型住宅が中心で、その大部分は会社役員、経営者、芸能人など高額所得者を対象としたものであった。ただ今日とは異なり、約半数は賃貸住宅で、供給戸数も新設住宅の1％にも満たないものであった。60年代後半になると、第二次マンションブームが現れ、需要層が一般大衆へと拡大していく。地価の高騰、住宅地の遠隔化などを背景に、職住近接を求めるサラリーマンが分譲住宅としてのマンションの需要者となっていった。金融緩和と持ち家需要の増大などを背景とする70年代初めの第三次マンションブームでは、住宅・宅地事情がさらに厳しくなり、立地の郊外化が進行し、団地形式の面開発が列島改造ブームにのって各地で実施されていく。近畿圏で本格的にマンション供給が行われるのはこのころからであり、首都圏、近畿圏以外の都市でもマンション建設が目だち始める。また、都心では業務用のビジネスマンションやワンルームのマンションも現れる。第一次オイル・ショック以後の第四次マンションブームは、第二次世界大戦後のベビーブーム期に生まれた世代の住宅需要に主として対応するものであった。このころになると、第三次ブームのころ盛んに行われた郊外での開発は各自治体の指導要綱などにより抑制され、税制などの改正から新規宅地供給も減少することになったため、マンション立地はふたたび都心に近くなり、小規模で跡地利用型のものが増えはじめた。こうした動向はマンションの都市住宅としての特性をさらに高めることになった。量的には78年に全国で約9万7000戸の供給があり、第三次ブームの頂点である73年の約9万4000戸を上回るとともに、第四次ブームはこれまでになく長期間持続したこともあって、都市住宅としてのマンションを定着させたといえる。第四次ブームは80年代初めごろまで続いたが、その後バブル期を迎えると地価や建築費が急騰し供給戸数は減少した。しかしバブル崩壊後の94年（平成6）以降ふたたび増加し、2002年現在約17万戸供給されている。

　以上のようなマンション供給の推移は、さまざまな業種の産業資本が比較的参入障壁の低いといわれるこの業界へ大量に参入してきた結果でもあった。今日、マンションの供給は以前に比べ困難な問題を数多く抱えるようになってきており、ブームの谷間の不況時には撤退を余儀なくされる業者も多いが、同時に事業の社会的分業体制が確立し、経験を積んだ建設業、設計事務所、コンサルタントなどが事業主を補完しながら事業を進める形態が定着してきている。なお、こうした流れとは別に、1970年代初めより、これまでのいわゆる「木賃アパート」にかわる零細経営の小規模な賃貸マンションが増え始め、これに対する国や地方自治体の融資制度などの整備も進められている。

［髙田光雄］

マンション供給の諸問題とその対応

日本において、中高層集合住宅という住宅形式は、そもそも公共住宅として発展してきたものである。その計画については一定水準の居住性を確保するという立場からさまざまな展開がみられ、都市再生機構、各地方自治体、地方住宅供給公社などにおいて技術的蓄積が存在している。今日、マンションの大部分を占める民間分譲住宅は、ある部分ではそれを継承発展させているともいえるが、利潤動機に基づき、市場メカニズムに従うという供給原理から、全体としては公共住宅とは異なった技術体系が形成されつつある。民間活動には的確な需要把握と俊敏な対応能力が認められ、競争原理を通じての急速な技術力の向上を基礎として都市環境形成上からも望ましいプロジェクトが実現しているのも事実であるが、反面、水準の格差が大きく、低水準の住宅も多く、それらが市場メカニズムのなかで競合に勝つ場合さえあるという矛盾が生じている。これは分譲マンションの持ち家としての側面に強く関連し、年々若年化、低所得化してきている持ち家需要者の取得能力に基づいて「商品」としての住宅の質と価格が決定されていくというメカニズムの必然的な結果である。

　さらに強力な宅地供給政策を欠く今日、絶対的な宅地不足のもとで、マンション供給に付随して需要層の取得能力を上限とする地価の引き上げが行われ、住宅ローンの家計圧迫はもとより、適切な管理費の支払いをも困難にし、他方で賃貸住宅供給を抑制しているという問題もある。

　中高層住宅という形式についても問題が存在する。たとえば、1960年代に社会問題化した日照をはじめとして、周辺地域社会に与える影響の問題がある。また、近年、とくに高層住宅での日常的な生活が幼児、老人などの弱者に好ましくない影響を与えることが各方面で指摘されている。

　所有形態や管理方式の問題も重要である。分譲マンションは「建物の区分所有に関する法律」（1962制定、1983改正）に基づき「区分所有」される。これは建物を「専有部分」と「共用部分」に分けて所有・管理するもので、後者については区分所有権者が管理組合を結成して共同で管理することになっている。しかし、専有部分と共用部分との区別は技術的にはかならずしも明確ではなく、とくに後者の位置づけは不安定である。また、管理組合の運営方法、管理水準の設定と費用の負担のあり方など、今後さらに検討を必要とする課題は多い。

　このほか、中古市場をめぐる問題、住宅性能をめぐる問題など、マンションの抱える問題は数限りなく存在している。これらに対する技術的・制度的改善は個別に検討されつつあるが、さらに研究、開発を進める必要は大きく、かつ総合的、体系的な視点からの政策の実施が望まれる。たとえば、供給計画と物的計画を連動させ、入居者との対応を考慮した設計を行うとともに、住戸の属性に応じてある程度の入居制限が行われるべきであろう。また、民間の分譲マンションについては、その開発・供給エネルギーを生かしつつ、適切な公的規制と効果的誘導が図られなければならない。

［髙田光雄］

『日本土地学会編『土地問題双書13　集合住宅の管理・高層建築』（1980・有斐閣）』▽『小林清周著『分譲マンションのすべて』（1980・鹿島出版会）』▽『梶浦恒男編著『マンション管理を問う』（1983・都市文化社）』▽『神戸都市問題研究所編『集合住宅管理の課題と展望』（1984・勁草書房）』▽『丸山英気編著『マンションの増築・建替え――過密化・老朽化からの脱出は可能か』（1991・清文社）』▽『日本マンション学会マンションストック評価研究会・マンション管理センター編『マンションを100年もたせる――ストック時代のハウジング』（2002・オーム社）』▽『鎌野邦樹・山野目章夫編『マンション法』（2003・有斐閣）』▽『日本マンション学会編・刊『マンション学19　特集　団地再生論の現在』（2004・信山社発売）』▽『日本建築学会編『集合住宅のリノベーション』（2004・技報堂出版）』▽『藤木良明著『マンションにいつまで住めるのか』（平凡社新書）』