When an object comes into contact with the surface of another object and starts to move, or when it is actually moving, a force acts on the contact surface that hinders the movement. This phenomenon is called friction, and the force that occurs at this time is called frictional force. There is static friction, which occurs when you try to move a stationary object, and kinetic friction, which acts on a moving object. Kinetic friction can be further divided into sliding friction and rolling friction, depending on the state of movement. When you try to drag a heavy object across the ground, it does not move easily because of static friction, and even after it starts to move, it requires a large force because of sliding friction. When various parts of a liquid or gas flow at different speeds, frictional forces also act between adjacent parts. This phenomenon is called internal friction or viscosity. When an object moves through a liquid or gas, the resistance that acts parallel to the surface of the object is called frictional resistance or viscous resistance. Cars and airplanes moving through the air are subjected to frictional resistance from the air. The word friction usually means friction on a solid surface, but in such cases it can also be called external friction in contrast to internal friction. Even solid surfaces that appear clean at first glance are often actually covered with thin films of various substances. Friction when such a thin layer of adsorbed molecules exists is called boundary friction, and friction on a clean solid surface is called dry friction. [Mitsuo Ishikawa] Static FrictionWhen you try to move an object that is stationary on a solid surface, it will not start to move as long as the force applied is small. This is because, while the force is small, a static frictional force acts in the opposite direction, but is equal to the force applied. The reason the object starts to move when the force exceeds a certain value is because there is a maximum value for static friction and it does not increase any further. This limiting frictional force is called maximum static friction. Its magnitude is determined by the state of the contact surface and the force acting normal to the surface, and is unrelated to the size of the contact area. The maximum static frictional force is proportional to the force acting normal to the surface, and the proportionality constant is called the coefficient of static friction. The smaller this value, the less force is required to move the object. If an object is placed on a horizontal plate and the inclination angle of the surface is gradually increased, the object will begin to slide when the inclination angle exceeds a certain value. The inclination angle just before the object starts to slide is called the friction angle. As shown in , if the weight of the object is W , the static friction coefficient acting on the contact surface between the inclined plane and the object is μ, and the friction angle is α, the force pushing vertically against the inclined plane is W cosα, so the maximum static friction force is μ W cosα. This value is equal to the force W sinα that causes the object to slide down parallel to the inclined plane, so the relationship is W sinα=μ W cosα. Therefore, μ=tanα, so the static friction coefficient μ of the contact surface can be found by measuring the friction angle α.[Mitsuo Ishikawa] Kinetic FrictionThe frictional force acting on an object moving on a solid surface is proportional to the force acting normal to the surface, just as in static friction. This proportionality constant is called the coefficient of kinetic friction. In dry friction, the kinetic frictional force is not related to the speed within a certain range. In addition, the kinetic frictional force is generally smaller than the static frictional force. These two empirical laws, along with the law of friction that "frictional force is proportional to the force acting normal to the contact surface and does not depend on the contact area," are called Coulomb's law or Amontons-Coulomb's law. shows the frictional coefficients of several solids, but these are empirical values when the solid surface is considered clean in a common sense sense. As mentioned earlier, various substances are adsorbed on the solid surface, so if an experiment is performed after carefully removing these adsorbed substances, the value of the frictional coefficient often changes significantly. For these reasons, the law that static frictional force is larger than kinetic frictional force is sometimes excluded from Coulomb's law.When an object rolls on a surface, there is a distinction between static friction and kinetic friction, and although static friction is greater than kinetic friction, both are much smaller than sliding friction. Therefore, if you avoid sliding friction and use rolling friction when moving an object, you can move it with less force. Rollers, vehicles, ball bearings, etc. all take advantage of the low rolling friction. On bicycles and sewing machines, oil is often applied to parts where metals come into contact and slide, but this is to reduce sliding friction and prevent the metal from wearing down. Oil molecules bond strongly to the metal surface, so the oil molecules on the surface come into contact with each other and the metals do not come into direct contact, and in this case the internal friction of the oil is at work. These are ways to reduce friction, but there are also ways to increase friction. The soles of shoes and grooves on tires are designed to increase friction and prevent slipping. [Mitsuo Ishikawa] "The Story of Friction" by Hisaichiro Tanaka (1985, Japan Standards Association)" ▽ "Encyclopedia of Science, 3rd Edition (1985, Iwanami Shoten), edited by the Iwanami Shoten Dictionary Editorial Department and supervised by Tetsuo Iino et al." ▽ "Popular Science: The Science of Friction" by Akio Kono (1989, Shokabo)" ▽ "The World of Friction" by Kazuo Kakuta (Iwanami Shinsho)" [Reference] | | | | | |©Shogakukan "> Friction angle (figure) ©Shogakukan "> Coefficient of friction of solids [Table] Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
一つの物体が他の物体の表面に接して動きだそうとするとき、または実際に運動しているときに、その接触面に運動を妨げるような力が働く。この現象を摩擦とよび、そのときに生ずる力を摩擦力という。止まっている物体を動かそうとするときにおきる静止摩擦と、動いている物体に働く運動摩擦とがある。運動摩擦は、さらに運動の状態によって、すべり摩擦と、ころがり摩擦に分けられる。重い物体を地面の上で引きずろうとするとき、なかなか動かないのは静止摩擦のためであり、動きだしてからも大きな力を必要とするのはすべり摩擦のためである。液体や気体のいろいろな部分が異なる速度で流れている場合、隣り合った部分の間にも摩擦力が働く。このような現象を内部摩擦、または粘性とよぶ。液体や気体の中を物体が動くときに、物体の表面に平行に働く抵抗は摩擦抵抗または粘性抵抗とよばれる。空気中を進む車や航空機には空気の摩擦抵抗が働く。摩擦ということばは、通常固体表面での摩擦を意味することが多いが、このような場合は内部摩擦に対して外部摩擦とよばれることもある。一見してきれいに見える固体の表面でも、実際はいろいろな物質の薄い膜で覆われていることが多い。このような薄い吸着分子層が存在するときの摩擦を境界摩擦とよび、清浄な固体表面での摩擦を乾燥摩擦という。 [石川光男] 静止摩擦固体表面上で静止している物体を動かそうとしても、力が小さいうちは動きださない。これは力が小さいうちは加えた力と同じ大きさの逆向きの静止摩擦力が働くからである。力がある値以上になると動きだすのは、静止摩擦力には最大の値があり、それ以上は大きくならないからである。この限界の摩擦力を最大静止摩擦力という。その大きさは接触面の状態と、面に垂直に働く力によって決まり、接触面積の大小には無関係である。最大静止摩擦力は面に垂直に働く力に比例するが、その比例定数を静止摩擦係数という。この値が小さいほど物体を動かす力は小さくてすむ。水平板上に物体をのせ、面の傾角をしだいに増していくと、傾角がある値を超えたときに物体が滑り始める。物体が滑りだす直前の傾角を摩擦角とよぶ。 のように物体の重さをW、斜面と物体との接触面に働く静止摩擦係数をμ、摩擦角をαとすると、斜面を垂直に押す力はWcosαとなるので、最大静止摩擦力はμWcosαとなる。この値は、物体が斜面に平行に滑り落ちようとする力Wsinαに等しいので、Wsinα=μWcosαという関係がある。したがってμ=tanαとなるので、摩擦角αを測定することによって、接触面の静止摩擦係数μが求められる。[石川光男] 運動摩擦固体表面上を運動している物体に働く摩擦力は、静止摩擦の場合と同様に面に垂直に働く力に比例する。この比例定数を運動摩擦係数という。乾燥摩擦では、速度のある範囲内で、運動摩擦力は速度の大小に関係しない。また一般に運動摩擦係数は静止摩擦係数よりも小さい。この二つの実験法則は、「摩擦力は接触面に垂直に働く力に比例し、接触面積によらない」という摩擦の法則とともに、クーロンの法則またはアモントン‐クーロンの法則とよばれている。 はいくつかの固体の摩擦係数を示すが、これは常識的な意味で固体表面が清浄だと思われる場合の経験的な値である。先に述べたように固体表面には種々の物質が吸着しているので、それらの吸着物質を厳密に取り除いて実験を行うと摩擦係数の値が大きく変わってくることも少なくない。このような事情から、静止摩擦力は運動摩擦力より大きいという法則をクーロンの法則から除外することもある。物体が面を転がる場合にも静止摩擦、運動摩擦の区別があり、静止摩擦力は運動摩擦力よりも大きいが、どちらもすべり摩擦に比べるとはるかに小さい。したがって、物体を動かすときにすべり摩擦を避けてころがり摩擦を利用すると、小さな力で動かすことができる。ころや乗物の車、ボールベアリングなどは、みなころがり摩擦の小さいことを利用したものである。自転車やミシンなどで、金属が接触して滑る部分に油をさすことが多いが、これはすべり摩擦を小さくして金属が擦り減るのを防ぐためである。油の分子は金属の表面に強く結合するので、表面の油の分子どうしが接触して金属は直接に触れ合わないから、この場合は油の内部摩擦が働いている。これらは摩擦を小さくするくふうであるが、摩擦を大きくするようにくふうする場合もある。靴の底やタイヤの溝は、摩擦を大きくして滑らないようにするためである。 [石川光男] 『田中久一郎著『摩擦のおはなし』(1985・日本規格協会)』▽『岩波書店辞典編集部編、飯野徹雄他監修『科学の事典』第3版(1985・岩波書店)』▽『河野彰夫著『ポピュラー・サイエンス 摩擦の科学』(1989・裳華房)』▽『角田和雄著『摩擦の世界』(岩波新書)』 [参照項目] | | | | | |©Shogakukan"> 摩擦角〔図〕 ©Shogakukan"> 固体の摩擦係数〔表〕 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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