British philosopher and political thinker. Born in Malmesbury, Wiltshire, England. Hobbes' mother gave birth to him prematurely after hearing of the Spanish Armada's invasion. The phrase "Terror and I were born as twins" was used to embellish the psychological basis of his political theory. After graduating from Oxford University, he became a tutor for the son of William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Devonshire (1552-1626), and traveled to the continent, where he learned of the works of Kepler and Galileo. During his second and third trips to the continent, he became interested in geometry, and came to know Descartes, Mersenne, and Gassendi. His first work, The Elements of Law, circulated in manuscript, asserted the indivisibility and absoluteness of sovereignty. When the impeachment of the Long Parliament, which was the beginning of the Puritan Revolution, began, he feared for his own safety and fled to France in 1640, where he completed his major work, Leviathan, in 1651. This work was seen as a defense of the republic, which displeased the court, but he returned to England under the republican system and was included in the court of the Restoration. However, even after returning to England, he had a turbulent life, engaging in fierce debates with Bramhall and others, and his ideas were banned as atheism, leading to his death at the age of 92. [Hidemitsu Koike July 21, 2015] ThoughtLinguisticsLike Bacon and Descartes, he believed that knowledge is acquired by the use of reason, not through the authority of the church. However, he adopted a deductive method modeled on geometry, rather than Bacon's inductive method. Therefore, the most important issue was the problem of definition. Science is the processing of terms and propositions, and he considered how they relate to reality. In this respect, he can be said to be a pioneer of modern analytical philosophy. Since he recognized reality only in individual objects, he did not think that reality corresponds to abstract terms or universal terms, and he considered universal terms to be simply names for classes of individual names. Behind this nominalist position lies a criticism of scholastic realism, which is the ideological foundation of church authority. [Hidemitsu Koike July 21, 2015] Object theory and human theoryHe developed his own metaphysical materialism based on Galileo's natural science and the empirical tendency peculiar to England. Like Descartes, he believed that only objects exist in the world, and that all phenomena are objects and their mechanical, necessary motion. However, he also considered a potential motion called konatós (pressure, inclination, effort) as the limit of motion. This is used to explain not only the motion of objects, but also human perception, emotion, and behavior. The motion of external objects exerts pressure on the sensory organs, which are physiologically transmitted to the brain. Memory is formed as a remnant of this motion, and this also explains the functions of judgment and reasoning. Furthermore, this motion causes subtle movements in the heart, and when it tends to increase vitality, feelings of pleasure arise, and when it does the opposite, feelings of displeasure arise. Hobbes argues that this is what causes animal motion (movement by will). From this mechanistic interpretation, he adopted determinism regarding the freedom of the will, and had a major debate with Bramhall over this. According to Hobbes, so-called freedom from necessity is an illusion, and freedom is simply freedom from restraint or coercion. Regarding morality, he said that there are no objective standards of good and evil, and that desires and motivations are directed toward objects that increase the ability to live, which are considered good, and the opposite is considered evil as an object of disgust and hatred. Therefore, if there is a general standard of good and evil, he said that it is set through the state, etc. [Hidemitsu Koike July 21, 2015] Political theoryBased on nominalism and mechanism, Hobbes, who denied abstract essences, constructed his political theory on a completely non-theological basis. In the state of nature, humans have the freedom (natural rights) to exercise their abilities without limit in order to survive. However, in this state, it becomes a state of "war of all against all." Therefore, in order to realize their selfish desires to the fullest, humans use their reason to renounce some of their natural rights, enter into contracts with each other, and submit to a single will that represents the people. This is where he believed the state and sovereignty were established. Although his theory has significant weaknesses in every area, it should be recognized that there is sufficient significance in his attempt to systematically break away from the theological traditions of his time. His major works include "Principles of Law" (1640), "Discourse on Bodies" (1655), "Essay on Man" (1658), "De Republique" (1642), and "Leviathan" (1651). [Hidemitsu Koike July 21, 2015] "Leviathan, translated by Michio Nagai and Kuniyoshi Ueda, 2 volumes (2009, Chuokoron-Shinsha)" ▽ "An Introduction to Hobbes Studies: The Birth of the Modern State, by Hiroshi Tanaka (1982, revised and expanded edition, 1994, Ochanomizu Shobo)" [References] | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
イギリスの哲学者、政治思想家。イングランドのウィルトシャー州マームズベリに生まれる。スペインの無敵艦隊の来襲を聞いて母がホッブズを早産したという。「恐怖と私は双子として生まれた」ということばは彼の政治理論の心理的根拠を潤色するために使われた。オックスフォード大学卒業後、キャベンディッシュ伯William Cavendish,1st Earl of Devonshire(1552―1626)の息子の家庭教師となって大陸に旅行し、ケプラーやガリレイの活躍を知る。第2回、第3回の大陸旅行のおり、幾何学に興味をもち、またデカルト、メルセンヌ、ガッサンディを知る。手稿のままで回覧された彼の最初の著作『法学要綱』The Elements of Lawが主権の不可分性と絶対性を主張するものであったため、ピューリタン革命の発端となった長期議会の弾劾が始まると、身の危険を憂慮して1640年にフランスに亡命し、その地で1651年に主著『リバイアサン』を完成。これが共和制の擁護とみられる側面をもっていたため宮廷側の不興をかったが、共和制下のイギリスに帰国して、王政復古の宮廷にもいれられた。しかし帰国後も、ブラムホールらと激しい論争を交わし、また彼の思想が無神論として禁圧されるなど、92歳で没するまで波瀾(はらん)に富んだ生涯を送った。 [小池英光 2015年7月21日] 思想言語論ベーコンやデカルトと同じく彼も、知識は教会の権威によってではなく、理性の使用によって獲得されると信じていた。しかし方法としては、ベーコンの帰納法ではなく、幾何学をモデルとする演繹(えんえき)的方法を採用した。それゆえ最重要なことは定義の問題であった。学問とは名辞や命題の処理であり、これらが実在とどうかかわるかを考察した。この点で彼は現代の分析的哲学の先駆者ともいえる。彼は実在するものを個々の物体だけに認めたので、抽象名辞や普遍名辞には実在は対応しないと考え、普遍名辞は単に個々の名前のクラスの名前とした。この唯名(ゆいめい)論の立場の背景には、教会の権威の思想的基盤であるスコラ的実在論に対する批判がある。 [小池英光 2015年7月21日] 物体論・人間論彼はガリレイの自然科学とイギリス特有の経験論的傾向から独自の形而上(けいじじょう)学的唯物論を展開した。この世界に実在するものは物体のみであり、いっさいの事象は物体とその機械的、必然的運動とする点はデカルトと同じであるが、さらに彼は運動の極限としてコナトス(圧、傾動、努力)なる潜在的な運動性を考えた。これによって物体の運動のみならず、人間の知覚、感情、行動までも説明しようとする。外物の運動が感覚器官に圧力を加え、生理的に脳に伝えられる。その運動の残存として記憶が成り立ち、判断や推理の作用もここから説明する。さらにこの運動が心臓への微細な運動をおこし、生活力を増大する傾向にあるときには快の感情が、逆の場合には不快の感情が生ずる。これが原因となって動物的運動(意志による運動)が引き起こされる、とホッブズは説く。 この機械論的解釈から彼は意志の自由に関して決定論をとり、これをめぐってブラムホールと大論争を交わした。ホッブズによれば、いわゆる必然性からの自由は幻想であり、自由とは単に拘束ないし強制からの自由である。道徳については、客観的な善悪の基準は存在せず、生活力を増大させる対象に欲求や意欲が向けられて善と考えられ、その逆は嫌悪や憎悪の対象として悪と考えられるという。それゆえ一般的な善悪の基準があるとすれば、それは国家等を通して設定されるとした。 [小池英光 2015年7月21日] 政治論唯名論と機械論を基礎として、抽象的本質を否定したホッブズは、政治論をまったく非神学的根拠から構築する。自然状態にあっては人間は生存のために自分の能力を無制限に行使しうる自由(自然権)をもつ。しかし、この状態においては、「万人の万人に対する戦い」の状態になる。そこで利己心の最大の実現のために、人間は理性を働かせて逆に自然権の一部を放棄し、相互に契約を結び、人々を代表する一つの意志に服従する。ここに国家と主権とが成立すると考えた。彼の理論はいずれの部分でも著しい弱点をもつが、当時の神学的伝統からの絶縁を体系的に貫徹しようとした点に十分な意義を認めるべきであろう。 主著は『法の原理』(1640)、『物体論』(1655)、『人間論』(1658)、『国家論』(1642)、『リバイアサン』(1651)など。 [小池英光 2015年7月21日] 『永井道雄・上田邦義訳『リヴァイアサン』全2巻(2009・中央公論新社)』▽『田中浩著『ホッブズ研究序説――近代国家の生誕』(1982/改訂増補版・1994・御茶の水書房)』 [参照項目] | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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