Hokkaido

Japanese: 北海道 - ほっかいどう
Hokkaido

Hokkaido is a region separated from Honshu by the Tsugaru Strait, lying north of 41 degrees 20 minutes north latitude, and consisting of the northernmost island of Hokkaido and a few small islands. It accounts for approximately 22% of the country's land area.

Of the Kuril Islands closest to Russia, the southern islands of Kunashiri, Etorofu, Shikotan, and the Habomai Islands were settled by Japanese people before World War II, and were under the jurisdiction of the Hokkaido Prefectural Government. With the national policy now being to return the four northern islands, the published area of ​​Hokkaido includes the area of ​​the four islands, totaling approximately 5,036.14 square kilometers. Hokkaido is not only close to Russia, but is also strategically important as it is the shortest route to the United States. As the only region in Japan facing the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, drift ice can be seen here, and the cold climate conditions in the country's warm land give the mountains a gentle and majestic appearance, and the history of development is recent, which, combined with the remaining undeveloped, primitive landscape, enhances its appeal.

As the land of the Ainu people, who lived a life of hunting and fishing amid this natural environment, Ezochi was long known as the land of Hokkaido. During the Edo period, Wajin (Japanese who migrated from Honshu in the Middle Ages and early modern times) were limited to settling in only a part of southern Hokkaido, with only a small number of people seasonally visiting the interior for the purposes of trade and fishing. At the end of the Edo period, the North Pacific Ocean became a stage for whaling, and the sightings of Western warships prompted the area to come under direct control of the shogunate instead of the Matsumae Domain. From this time on, many exploration surveys were carried out by shogunate officials, and at the suggestion of one of them, Matsuura Takeshiro, the name was changed to Hokkaido in 1869 (Meiji 2) after the Meiji Restoration. After that, colonization and development progressed through the development commission, the Tondenhei system, and large land disposals, and Wajin came to make up the majority of the population.

According to the 2015 census, the prefecture has a population of 5,381,733, an area of ​​83,424.31 square kilometers, and a population density of 68.6 people per square kilometer, the lowest in the country. Despite many policies, the population continues to increase slightly and sometimes decrease slightly. Among these, the population is highly concentrated in major cities, especially around Sapporo, with Sapporo City accounting for about 36% of the total population of the prefecture. Conversely, the population decline is noticeable in coal mining towns, and Utashinai City in particular had a population of less than 5,000 as of 2008. As of April 2018, the prefecture is divided into 35 cities, 9 general development bureaus, 5 development bureaus, 129 towns, and 15 villages (excluding the six villages of Kunashiri, Etorofu, and Shikotan). The prefectural capital is Sapporo City.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Nature

terrain

Hokkaido is an island with a gently arched diamond-shaped body and an S-shaped peninsula in the southwest, connected by the Ishikari and Yufutsu lowlands. The body is made up of the Ezo mountain range, which extends south from Karafuto (Sakhalin), and the Kuril Arc, which extends southwest from the Kamchatka Peninsula, which meet at the diagonal of the diamond to form the mountain skeleton. The Ezo mountain range stretches from Cape Soya to the north and south, with the relatively low Teshio mountain range continuing to the steep Yubari mountain range and Hidaka mountain range, before ending at Cape Erimo. To the east, the Kitami mountain range increases in height from north to south until it reaches the Ishikari mountain range, which continues to the low Shiranuka hills in the southeast. Between them lies a central depression, followed from north to south by the Tonbetsu Plain, Nayoro Basin, Kamikawa Basin, and Furano Basin, and in the south lies the wide Tokachi Plain, which is thought to be a tectonic basin of the same origin as the Kanto Plain. The Kuril Arc also forms the eastern Hokkaido volcanic region, with the Shiretoko, Akan, Shikaribetsu, Daisetsu, and Tokachi volcanoes lined up from the east to the center, as well as the Akan-Mashu National Park, which includes the caldera lakes Lake Mashu, Lake Kussharo, and Lake Akan, Shiretoko National Park, which is centered on the Shiretoko Peninsula jutting out into the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, and Daisetsuzan National Park, which includes the highest peak in Hokkaido, Mount Asahi (2,291 meters). In 2005, the northern part of the Shiretoko Peninsula and its coastal waters were registered as a World Natural Heritage site under the World Heritage Convention due to its precious natural environment and diverse ecosystems. There are also many areas rich in natural scenery, such as the Hidaka Mountains Erimo Quasi-National Park, which has a glacial topography, the lagoons of Lake Saroma and Lake Notoro, which face the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, and the Abashiri Quasi-National Park, which is home to sand dunes. Attached to these are the low-lying Konsen Plateau at the eastern end and the Mashike Mountains, which include the old volcano Shokanbetsu-dake at the western end. The latter, including two small islands floating in the Sea of ​​Japan, form the Shokanbetsu-Teuri-Yagishiri Quasi-National Park.

Meanwhile, the southwestern peninsula is framed by the Oshima Mountains, widely covered by Neogene layers, with the Komagatake volcano group to the south and the Yotei and Tarumae volcano groups to the north, and Uchiura Bay in between. This area is home to Shikotsu-Toya National Park, which contains caldera lakes such as Lake Shikotsu and Lake Toya, as well as the Niseko-Shakotan-Otaru Coast Quasi-National Park, which includes the Japan Coast, and the Onuma Quasi-National Park, which is centered around Mt. Komagatake. In general, the mountains of Hokkaido have gentle shapes that enhance their sense of grandeur, which is thought to indicate the influence of the periglacial climate of the past. Plains are found around the torso, and basins are connected in the central depression. Major rivers originate in the central high mountains and flow to the Sea of ​​Japan and the Pacific coast. On the Sea of ​​Japan side, there is the Ishikari River system, which flows through the Kamikawa and Furano basins and develops the Ishikari Plain in the Ishikari and Yufutsu lowlands, and the Teshio River system, which flows north through the Nayoro Basin, while on the Pacific side there is the Tokachi River system, which flows through the Tokachi Plain, all of which form the main agricultural regions of Hokkaido. The lower reaches of the rivers are characterized by a large amount of low-lying, swampy peatland, and the Kushiro Marsh downstream of the Kushiro River and the Sarobetsu Genya downstream of the Teshio River are known for their undeveloped natural scenery, with the former designated as Kushiro Marsh National Park and the latter as Rishiri-Rebun-Sarobetsu National Park. There are 13 Ramsar Convention registered wetlands in Hokkaido, including the Kushiro Marsh. There are 12 prefectural natural parks: Akkeshi, Furano Ashibetsu, Hiyama, Esan, Notsuke Furen, Kita Okhotsk, Nopporo Forest Park, Matsumae Yagoshi, Kariba Motta, Shumarinai, Teshio-dake, and Shari-dake.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

climate

Located in the northernmost part of the Japanese archipelago, it has characteristics not seen in Honshu, such as long, harsh winters, refreshing summers, and beautiful but short springs and autumns. However, these characteristics are typical of the main body, while the peninsula has a relatively warm climate similar to that of the Tohoku region. The main body is also surrounded by different seas, the Pacific Ocean, the Sea of ​​Japan, and the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, so the lowlands have an average annual temperature of about 6 to 8 degrees Celsius, with little variation, but there are large seasonal differences. The coldest places in summer are Nemuro and Kushiro, with an average of around 17 to 18 degrees Celsius, more than 1 degree lower than Abashiri and Wakkanai, which are on the same coast. This is because the cold Oyashio Current and the warm Kuroshio Current come into contact with the Pacific coast, generating sea fog (gas) that blocks sunlight. On the other hand, winter is blessed with sunny skies, but there is little snow, so the ground freezes deeply. The Japan Coast is warm due to the influence of the warm Tsushima Current, but in winter, westerly winds prevail, bringing snowfall and causing over 2 meters of snowfall in the mountainous areas behind. In February, drift ice travels south and reaches the shore of the Okhotsk Coast, passing through the Nemuro Strait and reaching Nemuro. For this reason, February is the coldest month in Monbetsu, Abashiri, and Nemuro. Compared to the contrasting climates of the Pacific Coast and the Japan Coast, the Okhotsk Coast is in between, with a good balance of annual precipitation, less than 1,000 mm, making it the least precipitation region in Japan. Compared to the coastal areas, the inland basins have a continental climate, being the coldest in winter and the warmest in summer. For example, in Asahikawa in the Kamikawa Basin and Obihiro in the Tokachi Plain, the average January temperature is around -8°C, and sometimes drops below -30°C. Bifuka, Otoineppu, Horokanai Town's Moshiri, and Rikubetsu in the northern Tokachi region are known as some of the coldest places in Japan, sometimes reaching minus 40 degrees Celsius. On the other hand, the warmest temperatures are reached in the summer, with an average temperature of 20 degrees Celsius in August and sometimes exceeding 30 degrees Celsius during the day.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Biota

animal

When the Japanese archipelago was still connected to the continent and the Sea of ​​Japan was a lake, Palearctic animals spread from the north, passing through Sakhalin (Karafuto), to Hokkaido and south of Honshu. The Tsugaru Strait was formed about 20,000 years ago, and mammals such as brown bears, chipmunks, sables, and pikas, a relic of the Ice Age, were unable to migrate to Honshu. Meanwhile, Japanese macaques, Asiatic black bears, and Japanese serows, which had traveled to Honshu from the south, were unable to cross over to Hokkaido. The Soya Strait was formed about 10,000 years ago, separating the archipelago from the continent. The Hatta Line, an animal distribution boundary line, was established in the Soya Strait based on the distribution of amphibians and reptiles, and the Brakestone Line, proposed based on the distribution of birds, was drawn in the Tsugaru Strait. Some birds, such as the Hazel Grouse, Blakiston's Fish Owl, Grey-headed Woodpecker, and Large-billed Tit, are found only in Hokkaido in Japan, but about 70% of the species that breed here are common to Honshu and the Tsugaru Strait is not a very clear border. For example, there are rare alpine moths, such as the Kurodake Takaneyoto, thought to be a relic from the ice age, that are endemic only to Mt. Daisetsu, and alpine butterflies, such as the Daisetsu Takanehikage, a national natural monument, the Pale-legged Butterfly, and the Asahi Hyogo, which are found in the north of Eurasia, and many species are found only in Hokkaido in Japan, but the Tsugaru Strait is not necessarily important. For freshwater fish, there are the Ezo Hotoke of the Loach family, which is found only in Hokkaido in the world, and the Shishamo of the Smelt family, and eight species of salmonids, such as the Hucho and Dolly Varden, are found only in Hokkaido in Japan.

[Michio Sakurai]

Vegetation

Hokkaido is divided into east and west by the mountain range (Hidaka Mountains, etc.) that runs through the center, and is roughly divided into subarctic forests on the east and cool temperate forests on the west, but on closer inspection, the boundary between the vegetation distributions is the Kuromatsunai lowlands that connect Suttsu and Oshamanbe. South of this, the vegetation is common to the Tohoku region, and this is the northern limit for beech and cypress, and the southern limit for northern species such as Yezo spruce. Furthermore, forests of typical cool-temperate deciduous broadleaf trees such as Quercus crispula, Acer monadelpha, Tilia linden, Betula maximowicziana, Ash, and Alder can be found throughout the prefecture. These are mixed in a mosaic pattern with subarctic coniferous forests such as Picea jezoensis and Abies sachalinensis, and so the area is recognized ecologically as a transition zone between the subarctic and cool-temperate zones, i.e., a mixed coniferous-broadleaf forest zone. Primeval coniferous forests of Picea jezoensis, Picea glehnii, and Abies sachalinensis remain in the Daisetsuzan Mountains, Hidaka Mountains, and Akan. Deciduous broadleaf forests can be found in the hills and foothills, with good examples being found on Mt. Moiwa and Mt. Maruyama in Sapporo. Vast peat bogs often develop in the lower reaches of rivers, and unique landscapes consisting mainly of sphagnum moss and sedges can be seen. The Kushiro Marsh and Sarobetsu Plain are particularly famous. Coastal sand dunes are decorated with Iris amplexicaule, Lilium longiflorum, Hemerocallis sieboldii, and Rugosa rose. The sand dunes at Koshimizu Beach and Lake Hamatonbetsu (Lake Kutcharo) are known as primeval flower gardens, and these are semi-natural vegetation caused by grazing. Many alpine plants grow in the alpine zones of Mt. Daisetsu, Shiretoko, Rishiri, and Rebun. Mt. Daisetsu is particularly abundant in alpine plants, and is even said to be a treasure trove of Japan. It is also important in terms of its geographical distribution, so researchers often visit the area.

[Junichiro Samejima]

history

Like Okinawa, Hokkaido's history has followed a unique development path that differs from other regions of Japanese society, and this tendency was particularly evident in the pre-modern period. Its basic characteristics can be pointed out as follows: (1) A pottery culture succeeding the Pre-Pottery culture existed from 6000 BC until around the 13th century, and developed successively into Jomon culture, Post-Jomon culture, and Satsumon culture (with the Okhotsk culture coexisting in northeastern Hokkaido), from which the so-called Ainu culture was formed; (2) Wajin (Japanese people) began to migrate to Ezo, where the Ainu people lived, from around the 12th century, and established a Wajin government in southern Hokkaido while competing with the Ainu people. This government developed into the early modern Matsumae Domain, whose economic base was the Akinai Bachigyosei system (which later transitioned to a basho contract system); and (3) after the Meiji Restoration, the Meiji government renamed this area Hokkaido and positioned it as an internal colony of Japanese capitalism, intending to develop it by sending in convicts, construction workers, and ordinary immigrants. This was also the process by which Hokkaido went from being a domestic colony to being part of the "inland" region.

[Kuwabara Masato]

Prehistory and Ancient

The oldest Pre-Pottery period sites to date include the Shukubai Sankakuyama Site in Chitose City, which dates back approximately 20,000 years ago, and the Shimaki Site in Kamishihoro Town, which have stone tools made from flakes. Eventually, stone tools made using the stone blade technique became widespread, followed by the microblade culture stage using the Yubetsu technique and other techniques, and then the end of the period when stone tools suggesting the use of bows and arrows appeared.

It was about 8,000 years ago that pottery appeared and the Jomon period clearly began. There were cultural differences between the southwestern part, which was strongly influenced by the Tohoku region and the northeastern part, which had Hokkaido-style traditions, separated by the Ishikari lowlands. In the early period, shell-patterned pottery was widely distributed, with flat-bottomed pottery in the northeastern part and pointed-bottomed pottery in the southwestern part. About 6,000 years ago, pottery began to become larger, and pointed-bottomed pottery disappeared. Eventually, a culture of cylindrical pottery based in the Tohoku region developed in the southwestern part, and a culture of Kitatsutsu pottery developed in the northeastern part. At the end of the Jomon period, 3,000 to 2,000 years ago, Kamegaoka-style pottery, which had come from Honshu, spread to the Ishikari lowlands and influenced pottery in the northeastern part of the lowlands. Around the time of the birth of Christ, the Yayoi culture spread to northern Japan, but in Hokkaido, people continued to live a hunting and fishing lifestyle and used pottery that inherited the lineage of Jomon pottery. This culture is called the Post-Jomon culture. Under the influence of the Yayoi culture, metal tools were used, and cylindrical beads and beads were also introduced. At the end of the Post-Jomon culture, in the 7th century, the Okhotsk culture, a fishing culture centered on hunting northern sea animals, spread from the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk to areas where drift ice lies, such as the Kuril Islands. Along with metal tools, there were also many stone tools, and a variety of bone and horn tools were developed. Among the ruins, the shell mounds near Abashiri City, which include the remains of a large dwelling and a cemetery, are well-known. Around the 8th century, the last pottery culture, the Satsumon culture, spread under the strong influence of Honshu culture. They had Satsumon pottery with brush marks that suggest a connection to Hajiki pottery, used iron tools, and no stone tools have been found. They also practiced agriculture, albeit on a small scale. Like the Okhotsk culture, it came to an end in the 12th or 13th century.

Meanwhile, during the Nara and Heian periods, Hokkaido was called Watarishima by the central government, and Emishi from Watarishima came to the area with furs for trade. Dewa Province was in charge of this, and prohibited private trade. At the end of the Heian period, the area came to be called Ezogashima or Ezoga Chishima.

[Masato Kobayashi]

middle ages

The Kamakura Shogunate made Ezo Island a place of exile for serious criminals, and appointed the Tsugaru Ando clan (Ando clan) as the Kanrei of Ezo to govern it. During the Kamakura period, Ezo Island was inhabited by three types of people: the Hinomoto, Karako, and Watarito. The Watarito are said to have come to Tsugaru Sotohama for trade, and up to 20 Kanto Gomen Tsugaru ships sailed the Sea of ​​Japan loaded with products from Ezo Island. Tosaminato, where the Ando clan was based, was bustling with Isen and Kyoto ships up until the Muromachi period. With this increased trading activity, the Satsumon culture came to an end in the 13th century, and the early modern Ainu culture began to take shape.

In the middle of the Muromachi period, the southern part of the Oshima Peninsula was ruled by a group of small clans called tatenushi, which were subordinate to the Ando clan, but as the Ando clan weakened, they plunged into a long period of warfare that involved the Ainu people, starting with the Koshamain Uprising in 1456 (Kosho 2). During this war, the Ainu built chashi, a fortress surrounded by wooden fences and dry moats, and a class of chiefs emerged to rule over several kotan.

[Masato Kobayashi]

Early modern period

In 1514 (Eisho 11), the Kakizaki clan (later the Matsumae clan) of Kaminokuni unified the lords of the castles, built a new castle in Tokuyama (Matsumae Town), and in 1551 (Tenbun 20) made peace with the Ainu from both the eastern and western parts of the country, establishing a system for trading with the Ainu within the castle town. In 1593 (Bunroku 2), they received a red seal letter from Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and in 1604 (Keicho 9), they received a black seal letter from Tokugawa Ieyasu granting them a monopoly on trading with the Ainu, and thus the early modern Matsumae Domain was established. During the Kan'ei era (1624-1644), due to the need to clarify the domain's territory, Ezo Island was divided into Wajinchi (Matsumae) and Ezochi, trade within the castle town was abolished, and trading posts for trading with the Ainu were established within Ezochi, which were then distributed to senior vassals. This marked the establishment of trading post chigyo, or the trading post system. The Shakushain uprising in 1669 (Kanbun 9) spread throughout Ezochi because of the underlying dissatisfaction of the Ainu at being tied down within Ezochi.

Only one summer ship could be dispatched to each trading post, but from around the Genroku period (1688-1704), ships were allowed to be dispatched for specific purposes, such as fishing for autumn fish, trout, and sea cucumbers, and fishing in Ezo became more active, and the trading post, which had been merely a point, began to have a spatial expansion that included the location of fishing. Also, the site contract system, in which merchants contracted to manage a site, became evident from around the Kyoho period (1716-1736), and by the Tenmei period (1830-1844), herring fishing in the Japanese areas was almost impossible, and the Japanese fishermen began to enter Ezo and develop a herring fishing industry where they caught 28 herring at a time. The great Ainu uprising in Kunashiri and Menashi in 1789 (Kansei 1) and the uprising by Japanese local fishermen the following year were acts of resistance against the tyranny of site contractors.

Meanwhile, in the latter half of the 18th century, the expansion of Russian power southward became evident, and the shogunate also began to turn its attention to Ezochi. Plans to develop Ezochi during the Tenmei era were thwarted with the downfall of Tanuma Okitsugu, but in 1792 the Russian envoy Laxman arrived in Nemuro, and in 1796 the British ship Providence arrived off the coast of Abuta. In 1799 the shogunate provisionally granted eastern Ezochi lands and began managing the area. In 1802 (Kyowa 2), a magistrate of Ezochi (later known as the Hakodate magistrate) was appointed, and the status was changed to permanent lordship. Furthermore, in 1807 (Bunka 4), Matsumae and Western Ezo were also confiscated, and the following year the magistrate's office was moved from Hakodate to Matsumae and renamed Matsumae Magistrate. However, as the threat of Russia waned and management of Ezo was not going well, the Matsumae Domain took over management of Matsumae and Ezo again from 1822 (Bunsei 5).

In preparation for the opening of the port of Hakodate following the Treaty of Peace and Amity between the United States and Japan in 1854 (Ansei 1), the shogunate again handed over the area around Hakodate to the government and appointed a Hakodate magistrate, and in the following year, 1855, it took direct control of Matsumae and Ezochi, excluding the areas of Matsumae and Esashi. In 1859, Ezochi was distributed to the six domains that had been guarding it. The shogunate also actively promoted the development of the inland area, allowing Japanese people to live in Ezochi permanently, and in 1861 (Bunkyu 1), it abolished the Yamakoshinai Sekisho, allowing free movement between the Japanese and Ezochi. At this point, Ezochi's existence had lost its meaning.

[Masato Kobayashi]

Modern

The Meiji government, which was established by the Meiji Restoration, established the Hakodate Court in April 1868 (Keio 4) to replace the Hakodate Magistrate's Office, which had ruled Ezo under the Shogunate. In leap April of the same year, the court was renamed Hakodate Prefecture, but while both were local administrative institutions, they were irregular structures that also served as national projects, such as the development of Ezo. Furthermore, due to the effects of the Hakodate War that began in October of the same year, development made little progress. In the Hakodate War, the former Shogunate forces led by Enomoto Takeaki landed at Washinoki (Morimachi) in Ezo, fought against the new government forces and Matsumae clan soldiers in Hakodate and Matsumae, and occupied Ezo. Enomoto was elected president by a vote of officers and above, and the so-called Enomoto Administration was established, but in May of the following year he was defeated by the government forces and surrendered.

However, the government placed great importance on the development of Ezo, and in July 1869 (Meiji 2), it established the Hokkaido Development Commission as its exclusive agency, directly under the Dajokan (Grand Council of State), and in August Ezo was renamed Hokkaido. The Hokkaido Development Commission saw the site contract system, which had existed since the early modern period, as an obstacle to development, and set out a policy to abolish it (completely abolished in 1876), and began construction of Sapporo, the main office, as Hokkaido's new political base. However, since it was difficult to develop the entire prefecture, a system of partial control was adopted, in which development was delegated to various feudal domains, aristocrats, and samurai on Honshu, except for important areas such as Sapporo, which came under the direct control of the Hokkaido Development Commission. However, as this method made it impossible to develop the entire prefecture in a unified manner, it was abolished by August 1871, and the area came under the direct control of the Hokkaido Development Commission. During this time, the former Matsumae Domain in the western part of the Oshima Peninsula was renamed Tate Domain to Tate Prefecture after 1869, and in 1871 it was under the jurisdiction of Aomori Prefecture, but was transferred to the Hokkaido Development Commission the following year. In addition, in Karafuto, which was originally under the jurisdiction of the Hokkaido Development Commission, the Karafuto Development Commission was established in 1870 due to the growing tension in diplomatic relations with Russia, but it was annexed to the Hokkaido Development Commission the following year. In May 1870, Kuroda Kiyotaka (who became the Director of the Hokkaido Development Commission in 1874), who was appointed Vice Minister of Development, made a proposal in October of the same year regarding the development of Hokkaido, which was based on the abandonment of Karafuto and the introduction of Western technology. This led to the launch of the Hokkaido Development Commission's Ten-Year Plan, which aimed to invest a total of 10 million yen in the development of Hokkaido over a ten-year period starting in 1872. First, Horace Capron, Secretary of Agriculture of the United States, was invited as an advisor to the Hokkaido Development Commission, and many foreigners, mainly Americans, came to Hokkaido. Under their guidance, the Hokkaido Development Commission began basic development projects such as surveying the prefecture's underground resources, building roads, improving rivers and harbors, and constructing the Poronai Railway. In addition, it invited immigrants, mainly from the samurai class, implemented the Tondenhei system, and founded the Sapporo Agricultural School, and the expenses for these projects reached over 20.82 million yen, more than double the initial amount. In 1881, just before the end of the 10-year plan, the Hokkaido Development Commission's public property transfer scandal occurred, which became the spark for the "Meiji 14th Year Coup," and the transfer plan was halted. The following February, 1882, the Hokkaido Development Commission was abolished, and the three prefectures of Sapporo, Hakodate, and Nemuro were established. In January 1883, the Hokkaido Business Management Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce was established to oversee all the previous government-run businesses. However, this three prefectures and one bureau system resulted in administrative disunity and hindered the progress of development, so in January 1886 the three prefectures were abolished and a new Hokkaido government was established. The first governor, Michitoshi Iwamura, abolished the direct protection that had been a prominent feature of previous immigration policies, and adopted a so-called indirect protection policy, such as simplifying administration, selling off government-run businesses, and implementing the colony selection program, in order to promote low-cost development. In land policy, the Hokkaido Land Transfer Regulation of 1886 and the Hokkaido National Undeveloped Land Disposal Law of 1897 promoted the disposal of large land areas, providing an opportunity for large landowners to be established in various areas, with aristocrats, politicians, and capitalists from outside Hokkaido as landowners. In the 1890s, due in part to a rapid increase in immigrants to Hokkaido from Honshu, Hokkaido entered a full-scale development era, and this situation continued until around 1920 (Taisho 9). As a result, the population of Hokkaido, which was just under 300,000 in 1886, exceeded one million in 1901 (Meiji 34), and increased to approximately 2.36 million in 1920. The area of ​​cultivated land also increased from just over 25,000 cho in 1886 to just over 840,000 cho in 1920.

Thus, as the development of Hokkaido progressed mainly in the inland areas, modern administrative systems that had not previously applied to Hokkaido were gradually applied to Hokkaido. For example, the municipal system was implemented in 1899 as the ward system (which became a city in 1922), the first-class town and village system in 1900, and the second-class town and village system in 1902, and the House of Representatives Election Law was also implemented in 1902. However, rather than systems that were based on the rights of Hokkaido residents, it was the compulsory systems, as seen in the conscription law that was implemented in Hakodate in 1889 (implemented throughout the prefecture in 1898), that were implemented first. In any case, the application of modern systems to Hokkaido peaked around 1922, and this period marked a turning point in Hokkaido's transformation into an "inland" region, shedding its character as a colony of the Japanese interior. However, behind the progress of development, there were many sacrifices related to the development, such as discrimination and mistreatment of the Ainu people, as clearly shown by the promulgation of the Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act in 1899, prison labor, which was particularly harsh in the 1890s, and the boarding house system known as takobeya, which was an inevitable part of Hokkaido's civil engineering projects until World War II. In particular, the lineage of forced labor in Hokkaido, which continued from prison labor and tako labor, was realized during World War II with the forced transportation of Koreans and Chinese, mainly to coal mines and other mines of Hokutan Co., Ltd.

[Kuwabara Masato]

present day

Before the Second World War, Hokkaido was gradually moving towards integration into the "mainland," but it still retained the characteristics of a domestic colony in the Hokkaido Prefectural Law, the designated town and village system (the successor to the second-class town and village system), and other systems. However, these special systems disappeared with the promulgation of the prefecture system in September 1946, and in May 1947, the Local Autonomy Law came into force, establishing Hokkaido as a local government, the same as other prefectures in the "mainland." Also, since Japan lost all of its overseas colonies after the war, Hokkaido, which had the most untapped natural resources in the country, was given attention as a target for development, and the Hokkaido Development Law was enacted in 1950. The Hokkaido Regional Development Agency and its local branch, the Hokkaido Regional Development Bureau, were established as the implementing agencies. This meant that the administration of Hokkaido's development, which should have been carried out as a unified entity, was separated into the national government and local governments, and various discussions were held on the merits of this. Later, in January 2001, the Hokkaido Regional Development Agency was reorganized and merged with the Ministry of Construction and other ministries and agencies as part of the reorganization of the central government to become the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. The Hokkaido Bureau, an internal bureau of the ministry, was created by downsizing and downgrading the Hokkaido Regional Development Agency. While this does not mean that the government has withdrawn from Hokkaido's development administration, it will be the first step in establishing the prefectural government's leadership in Hokkaido's development administration.

[Kuwabara Masato]

industry

Since the Meiji period, Hokkaido has been based on the development of primary industries that develop local resources, such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and coal mining. During this period, the country's funding and guidance on the development of Hokkaido has had a strong impact, and the government's government's government has been dependent on the government's government. As a result, Hokkaido has become a food base for rice, milk, seafood, and other products, and has also played a role as an energy supply site. However, due to its short history, private capital accumulation was insufficient, and in terms of industrialization, local industries were far behind, with the establishment of major industries being established by the expansion of Honshu capital. As the trend toward introducing cheap overseas products based on free trade became stronger, Hondo Industry, which grew through the government's protection subsidies, was fundamentally shaken up. Many coal mines have been forced to close because of their reserves, while profitable aspects, and rice crops with little quality rice have been forced to significantly reduce and reverse crops due to rice production adjustments, and the reduction in Northern Fisheries directly hit the Hondo Fisheries industry, resulting in a slump in the shipbuilding industry, and the decline in iron demand has further reduced the historic Hondo Steel industry, with core industries facing major challenges.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Agriculture

Hokkaido's cultivated land area is 1,169,000 hectares (2005), which accounts for about 15% of the total area of ​​the road. Of these, it is 45% of pasture, 35% of fields, and 20% of paddy fields, which is very different from other prefectures. In terms of crude agricultural production, fresh milk is the leading producer of agricultural products, and rice is the second largest, leading to this, leading to the Sorachi and Kamikawa regions in the Ishikari River basin of the central Hokkaido prefecture, about three-quarters of the entire prefecture (2007), but to counter restructuring of paddy fields, the allocation of rice reductions on the main road is the highest in the country, and even in the main production areas, the rice has been transformed significantly. Paddy fields have disappeared, especially in the north and eastern Hokkaido. However, as a crop with a stable price, it is a core farming industry, and its large scale and low production costs are the main farming industry. In contrast, dairy farming is centered around Tokachi, Nemuro, Kushiro, Abashiri, and Northern Kamikawa and Soya in the eastern Hokkaido, and the northern part of Hokkaido, and the Nemuro, Kushiro, and Northern Hokkaido regions, which have many climate restrictions, and the average number of dairy cows owned per farmer is over 100 (120 in Nemuro). However, it is difficult to manage because of the lack of land cultivated land, especially the purchase of concentrated feed, the introduction of high-quality dairy cows, and facilities related to livestock barns, and there are many problems such as stable prices of raw milk and conflicts with small and small dairy farms. Farm crops are mainly in the Tokachi and Abashiri regions, and there are many specialty products of Hondo, such as potatoes, beans, and beets. Wheat, soybeans, and azuki rice are also increasing as rice-converted crops in the two regions mentioned above, as well as in the rice production areas of Kamikawa and Sorachi. The area specialization of vegetables and fruits is the area, with carrots in the Furano Basin, asparagus in the foot of Mt. Yotei, onions in Kitami, Furano, Iwamizawa and Sapporo, melons in Yubari, apples in Yoichi and Niki, and grapes. The number of farmers is 51,990 (2005), with 19.8 hectares of cultivation per household, with 54% of farmers over 10 hectares, and the rate of full-time farmers reaches 52%. The farmland is very different from that of agriculture in other prefectures because the area is wide and there are many full-time farmers. The tradition of adopting Western farming methods, such as the United States, at the time of development, remains strongly in the field-growing dairy lands in eastern Hokkaido, and the introduction of large machinery facilities is popular, and the scenery in which the storage sheds and silo livestock barns dot the main house gives a Western feel.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

forestry

The forest area is 5,339,000 hectares (2005), accounting for 65% of Hokkaido. Of these, 55% are national forests, 27% are private forests, and 18% are public forests. In the region, mountainous areas spanning the Kamikawa, Abashiri and Tokachi regions account for 40% of the forest area, making it the main focus of forestry. Afforestation focuses on coniferous trees, with four coniferous trees relative to six broad-leaved trees, but when it comes to natural forests that account for 70% of the total, the proportion of broad-leaved trees is even higher, reaching 80% of that. The species used for cutting down are the overwhelming majority of trees, and most of them are coniferous trees. Oak, beech and other species, but the total amount is now less than half that of coniferous trees. Because of the quality, it is exported to European countries as an inch wood. The number of forestry and hunting workers was affected by the recession caused by the import of cheap foreign materials, and peaked in 1960, falling below 8,000 in 1990. In the past, they were transported by transport or forest tracks, but now the main focus is on trucking.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Fisheries

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. However, due to the negotiations for catch quotas to Japan under the Japan-US-US-Can-Japan and the Japan-Russia Fisheries Treaty, the strong stance on protecting domestic fisheries resources in the 200 nautical miles of US-Russia waters has made it difficult to reduce catches at Northern Fisheries, and has been causing a blow to the Northern Fisheries bases such as Kushiro, Hanasaki, Wakkanai, and Hakodate. Meanwhile, due to the influence of fishing negotiations with South Korea in western Japan, international relations are being strongly projected into the Hondo fisheries industry, with Korean fishing boats operating in the waters around the Hondo, causing conflicts with coastal fishermen.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Mining

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. Coal is influenced by trends in the electricity and steel industry, which account for most of the demand for coal, and now only general fuel coal is produced, and this is a barrier to lowering electricity prices, making it less likely to be a problem. For this reason, coal mining cities are on the verge of rising and falling. Non-ferrous metal mining has a large amount of small capital, and is strongly influenced by the prosperity of overseas market conditions, and repeatedly operates unstable. Many of the peninsulas have been operating in Toyoha (Sapporo), and gold and silver in Eniwa until recently, but all of them have been closed.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Industry

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. Looking at this regionally, Muroran and Tomakomai are the top industrial shipments, and Sapporo, which is said to be a political, educational and cultural city, has followed suit, leading to a major difference from other cities. From around 1970, Chitose and Eniwa, which have attracted companies to attract companies, joined in, and formed the Hokkaido New Industrial City designated in 1964, and is said to be a successful example of new industrial cities, aiming to spread industrial bases nationwide, and is at the heart of the Hondo Industrial Area. However, as the economy enters the low-growth period, there are many problems, such as the stagnation of development at large-scale industrial bases in East Tomakomai.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

development

After World War II, Hokkaido was considered a hope for the absorption of population and utilizing undeveloped resources, and emergency development and settlements were carried out, but it was unsuccessful. Therefore, in order to fully engage in development, the Hokkaido Development Act was enacted in 1950, with the Hokkaido Development Agency (now the Hokkaido Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) in the central office and the Hokkaido Development Bureau in Sapporo as its executive body, and comprehensive development began. So far, comprehensive development plans for the first period (1952-1962), the second period (1963-1970), the third period (1971-1977), the fourth period (1978-1987), the fifth period (1988-1997), and the sixth period (1998-2007), the seventh period (2008-2017). The first phase focused on resource development (power development in the Tokachi River area, artificial port, Konsen Pilot Farm, Shinshinots Peatland development) and the second phase focused on industrial development (development of urban areas such as Sapporo) to bring about urban concentration of population. The third phase was characterized by large projects (large dairy villages in northern Hokkaido and eastern Hokkaido, and East Tomakomai industrial areas), but was frustrated after encountering the oil shock in 1973. The fourth and fifth phases turned into a low-growth economy, and the development of social capital, enhancing the introduction of private sector vitality, which was previously neglected. During this period, traffic improvements were carried out, including the new Ishikari Bay Port and New Chitose Airport, but the Chitose River Waterway, which aimed to prevent flooding, stagnated due to coordination with the natural environment.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

traffic

Since the Meiji period, Hokkaido's transportation in Hokkaido was based on a route connecting the capital, Sapporo and the capital, Tokyo. The railway was originally intended to transport coal from the Ishikari coal field, and as the development progressed, it extended inland and played the main role in transportation. During this period, development and military considerations were given priority, and it became national-run. However, due to the importance of profitability, many deficit local lines, such as the Haboro Line, Yuumo Line, and Iburi Line, were abolished, especially before and after the privatization of the JNR in 1987. The main lines of Hakodate, Soya, Nemuro, and Iburi Line were added to the main lines of Hakodate, Soya, Nemuro, and Iburi, but the north-eastern edge of Hokkaido was connected to the former military capital of Asahikawa. After World War II, the main lines on which the express trains were run changed to the center of Sapporo. With the acquisition of the Chitose Line between Sapporo and Tomakomai and the opening of the Ishikatsu Line between Minami-Chitose Station on the Chitose Line and the Shintoku Shintoku on the Nemuro Main Line, the main routes between Sapporo and Hakodate and Sapporo and Kushiro were routed via these lines, and the Ishikita Main Line via Asahikawa was added. In 1988, the Seikan Tunnel opened, and the train was connected to Honshu. The electrified sections are centered on Sapporo and between Otaru and Asahikawa, and between Sapporo and Muroran. The national highway began with the opening of the Sapporo-Muroran and Mori-Hakodate in the early Meiji period. After World War II, the main route was the main route in the development of automobile transportation, with National Route 36 to Tomakomai and Muroran in the center of Sapporo, No. 5 to Hakodate via Otaru and No. 12 to Asahikawa. The Sapporo Expressway (between Sapporo and Otaru) has also been completed, and the Doho Expressway (between Shibetsu Kenbuchi and Sapporo and Onuma Park) has been completed, and the Doho Expressway, which branches out at Chitose Eniwa Junction on the Doho Expressway, has been developed on the Kitami Line to the Ashioro Interchange and the Kushiro Line to the Akan Interchange (2018). The air route is set to New Chitose Airport as the entrance to Sapporo, and forms the main routes across the country as well. In addition, Okadama Airport will also be in touch with airports in major cities in Hokkaido. Asahikawa, Kushiro, Obihiro, Memanbetsu (Ozoracho), Hakodate, Wakkanai, Monbetsu, and Nemuro Nakashibetsu are also connected by direct flights to Tokyo, Nagoya, and other areas. The Seikan Ferry, which connects Hakodate and Aomori, was one of the main transport services of the Hondo Maritime Route, but the completion of the Seikan Tunnel has closed its 70-year history. In March 2016, the Hokkaido Shinkansen between Shin-Aomori and Shin-Hakodate Hokuto was opened, and Kikonai Station was set up. The extension to Sapporo is scheduled for 2031. Tomakomai and Otaru are connected by ferry to Honshu, and remote island routes are operated with the government's assistance.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Society and Culture

Education and Culture

School education by the government began in Sapporo and Hakodate, reflecting the development of Hokkaido. The year before the establishment of the school system, Shiseikan and Hakodate Schools in Sapporo, which were the predecessors of elementary schools, were opened for the children of pioneering officials. At higher education institutions, Sapporo Agricultural School, which trained pioneering leaders in 1876, Hakodate Normal School, which trained teachers in 1880, and two years later, Sapporo Normal School, which developed into the current Hokkaido University and the University of Hokkaido Education. As of 2017, other national universities include Otaru University of Commerce, Muroran University of Obihiro University of Obihiro University of Livestock, Kitami University of Technology, Asahikawa University of Medical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Medical Sciences, Kushiro Public University, Public Hakodate Mirai University, Sapporo Municipal University, Nayoro Municipal University, and the same junior university. Private universities are based on secondary schools beginning in the Meiji and Taisho eras, and are home to 28 universities, including Hokkai Gakuen University (Sapporo City) and Fuji Women's University (Sapporo City), which were formed after World War II, and 15 junior colleges. Sapporo is home to four national and public universities (including junior colleges), and 21 private universities and junior colleges, making it the school capital of Hokkaido. In addition, national universities and technical colleges are distributed to four cities: Hakodate, Asahikawa, Kushiro, and Tomakomai.

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. There are many cultural facilities in the heart of Sapporo, including the Hokkaido Museum, the Hokkaido Library, and the Hokkaido Museum of Modern Art, but Hakodate also has some notable things, such as the Hakodate Municipal Library, which is rich in classical literature, and the Hakodate Municipal Museum, which is rich in archaeological literature.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Lifestyle and Culture

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. Of the 35 cities in Hokkaido, nearly 80% of the cities, including Sapporo, are the case with most mountain river names. The Japanese names expressed in kanji are often translated into the Ainu language, and this is probably the result of the Ainu language, which was naturally seen as hunting and fishing people, showing ethnic wisdom to properly express the characteristics of the land. In recent years, awareness of the Ainu language has been increasing, and the publication of Ainu language-related learning materials has been increasing. Furthermore, in response to cold snowy areas, houses are not open structures such as veranda and shutters, but are often made using so-called framework construction methods, in which walls and pillars are integrated. Most openings such as windows are double-layered. Because of the new history, there are few folk entertainment and events. However, in the south of Hokkaido, there are many older entertainment such as Matsumae Kagura, Esashi Okiage Ondo, and Esashi Oiwake. Meanwhile, the reconstruction of old Ainu entertainment events has been carried out enthusiastically, with the preservation and legend of Ainu musical instruments such as the crane dance (the nationally important intangible folk cultural property) and the mookkuri, as well as the preservation of old customs at the Nibutani Ainu Cultural Museum, a Biratori town in the area of ​​Hidaka Promotion Bureau, among others. Some of the original Ainu vocational activities have been transformed along with the popularization of the masses. There are 329 designated cultural assets in the national and Hokkaido (2017). The nationally designated natural monuments include six special natural monuments such as Marimo and Showa Shinzan, Showa Shinzan, and Hokkaido. Historic sites are home to Northern defense facilities at the end of the Edo period, such as the Goryokaku in Hakodate city, the ruins of various domains, including the ruins of the northern part of the Edo period, as well as the Ainu chashi (fortress) and the remains of the Japanese mansion (tate) of the Ainu, and the remains of the Japanese mansion (tate) of the Ainu. Many important cultural properties are well known for Western-style buildings that incorporate Western civilizations from the Meiji period, and are characterized by the distinctive Clock Tower (formerly Sapporo Agricultural School Demonstration Hall), the former Hokkaido Government Office main building of the Akarenga, the Toyoheikan in Sapporo, and the former Hakodate Ward Public Hall, which has been opened due to the influence of Western culture as the country opened. Please refer to the "Ainu" section for information on the Ainu people.

[Ichiro Kashimura]

Folktales

In the north of Japan, there were historically people called Emishi, Maojin, Emishi, and Ezo. Among these, the characteristics of folk tales in Hokkaido can be recognized in the traditions of the Ainu, an indigenous people. Their successors still exist today.

Ainu legend is represented by long epic poems such as Yukara, Sakolpe, and Hauki. In these, the protagonist is told as a natural god with heroic gods and animals and animals. What is particularly noteworthy is that all of these stories are told using the autobiographical form of the protagonist. It is a first-person idea. Many of the content is based on love, battle and faith, but both are directly linked to festivals and rituals and are treated as extremely sacred. At the same time, they are also given the role of education and fostering children. The fact that these colloquial stories have been considered the primary focus of education. This is an example of how folk tales have been deeply involved in human life in people who do not have letters.

Meanwhile, Hokkaido has many folk tales that have been passed down from the mainland. This area has been an object of longing and mysticism since early on. Reflecting the spirit of the people, the "Onzoushishima Watari" was already established in the Kamakura period. There is a legend that the Yoshitsune, a popular among the people, was passed down to the Ezo land and worshiped as a godly walnut.

In addition, there is a laughing story about Shigejiro from Esashi as the main character, and the protagonist of Shigejiro from Esashi. Esashi, a prosperous herring fishing ground, has gathered from all over the country. The story of Shigejiro is a laughing story about a cunning and lovable man born among these people. The story of Shigejiro is also distributed throughout the Tohoku Coast, and clearly shows the relationship between the people who sailed and sailed herring sites and folk tales.

In addition, folk tales of the Uirta people who moved from Karafuto (Sakhalin) after World War II, and old people still live with the famous folk tales such as "Teruk" and "Safri".

[Junichi Nomura]

"New Hokkaido History" 9 volumes (1969-1981, Hokkaido)" ▽ "Kai Homineo, The Logic of Northern History of Japan" (1974, Yuzankaku)" ▽ "Takakura Shinichiro and Seki Hideshi, "Hokkaido Climate and History" (1977, Yamakawa Publishing)" ▽ "Hokkaido Morie, History of Hokkaido (1981, Hokkaido Shimbunsha)" ▽ "Hokkaido Encyclopedia, Part 1, Part 2 (1981, Hokkaido Shimbunshasha)" ▽ "Enomoto Susumu, "Research on Early Modern History of Hokkaido" (1982, Hokkaido Publishing Planning Center)" ▽ "Introduction to Modern Hokkaido History by Kuwabara Masato (1982, Hokkaido University Toshokankai)" ▽ "Hokkaido: Nature and People" (1986, Tsukiji Shokan)" ▽ "Kadokawa Japanese Place Name Dictionary Dictionary Hokkaido, 2 volumes (1987, Kadokawa Shoten) ▽ Kuwabara Masato's edited by Kuwabara Masato, "People of Hokkaido I" (1987, Sanseido)"

[Reference items] | Ainu | Asahi Leopard Mon | Esashi Oiwake | Ezo | Enomoto Takeaki | Okhotsk Culture | Kuroda Kiyotaka | Kepron | Battle of Koshamain | Goryokaku | Sugumi Pottery Culture | Battle of Shakushine | Prisoner Work | Seikan Tunnel | Jomon Culture | Daisetutakanehikage | Tonden-san | Hakodate War | Location Contracting System | Hokkaido Development | Hokkaido Farming Method | Matsuura Takeshiro | Matsumae Domain | Marimo [Complete Materials] | Hokkaido Manual
Hokkaido Emblem
©Hokkaido ">

Hokkaido Emblem

Hokkaido location map
©Shogakukan Illustration/Shogakukan Creative ">

Hokkaido location map

Hokkaido topography map
©Shogakukan Illustration/Shogakukan Creative ">

Hokkaido topography map

Number of residents from prefecture to Hokkaido
The prefectural office was established in 1886 (Meiji 19) to 1922 (Taisho 11) ©Shogakukan ">

Number of residents from prefecture to Hokkaido

Mount Daisetsu
A group of volcanoes located almost in the center of Hokkaido. The group includes 2000m-class mountains, including Mt. Asahidake (on the right side of the photo). The photo shows the view from Jujitsu Hill in Asahikawa City. It is part of Daisetsuzan National Park, Japan's largest mountain natural park. Nationally designated special natural monument Biei Town, Kamikawa Town, Higashikawa Town, and Shintoku Town, Kamikawa County, Hokkaido © Tourism Division, Economic and Tourism Department, Asahikawa City ">

Mount Daisetsu

Cape Erimo
A cape protruding into the Pacific Ocean, located at the southernmost tip of the Hidaka Mountains. It is included in Erimo National Park, the Hidaka Mountains. There are many campsites and other facilities in the vicinity, and is crowded with tourists in the summer. The rocky reef that stretches several kilometers offshore from the cliff at the end is famous as a habitat for the slugs. Erimo-cho, Horoizumi-gun, Hokkaido ©Fam. Kanagawa ">

Cape Erimo

Mount Oakan
A stratovolcano (1,370m) that erupted after the formation of the Akan Caldera. It is part of Akan-Mashu National Park. At the foot of the mountain are Lake Akan, Panketo and other lakes. The photo shows the view from Futagotakedai, the highest point on the Akan Crossroads on the east side. Mt. Meakan can be seen in the background on the left. Kushiro City, Hokkaido © Akan Tourism Association ">

Mount Oakan

Mount Tokachi
The main peak (2077m above sea level) of the Tokachi volcanic chain that runs northeast-southwest through central Hokkaido. The photo shows the Ansei crater on the western slope of the mountain as seen from the Tokachidake Onsen area. The area is included in Daisetsuzan National Park and is known as a famous spot in Hokkaido for viewing autumn leaves that change color the earliest. Biei Town, Shintoku Town, Kamikawa District, and Kamifurano Town, Sorachi District, Hokkaido © Tourism Division, Economic and Tourism Department, Asahikawa City

Mount Tokachi

Lake Mashu
The central crater cone Kamuinupuri fills part of the caldera and forms a lake formed by accumulating water in the depression. It is known for its high transparency and the frequent occurrence of fog. Near the center of the lake is Kamuish Island (Benten Island). Akan Mashu National Park area. Teshikaga-cho, Kawakami-gun, Hokkaido ©Fam. Kanagawa ">

Lake Mashu

Lake Kussharo
A double volcanic island can be seen from Bihoro Pass on the west shore of the lake. The Kussharo Caldera is one of the largest in the world, along with the Aso Caldera, and Lake Kussharo occupies the western half of it. It is one of the most scenic spots in Akan Mashu National Park. Teshikaga Town, Kawakami District, Hokkaido ©Shogakukan ">

Lake Kussharo

Lake Akan
This lake was formed by volcanic activity at Mount Oakan. It is known as the habitat of the special natural monument, the Marimo. It is included in Akan-Mashu National Park and was registered as a Ramsar Convention wetland in 2005. The photo shows the view from the Shiratoyama Observatory, located southwest of Lake Akan. Kushiro City, Hokkaido © Akan Tourism Association ">

Lake Akan

Cape Shiretoko
Near Cape Shiretoko, the tip of the Shiretoko Peninsula, which separates the Sea of ​​Okhotsk from the Nemuro Strait, at the eastern end of Hokkaido. The two-tiered coastal terrace is clearly visible. The northern half of the peninsula is designated as Shiretoko National Park. Kunashiri Island can be seen on the horizon. Part of the World Heritage Site "Shiretoko" (registered in 2005) Shari Town, Shari District, Hokkaido and Rausu Town, Menashi District, Hokkaido © Shiretoko Shari Town Tourism Association ">

Cape Shiretoko

Mount Asahi
It is the main peak of the Daisetsuzan volcanic group and the highest peak in Hokkaido (2291m). Smoke still rises from the large explosion crater on the west side. In the foreground of the photo is Sugatami Pond. A ropeway runs from the foot of the mountain. It is part of Daisetsuzan National Park. Higashikawa Town, Kamikawa District, Hokkaido © Tourism Division, Economic and Tourism Department, Asahikawa City ">

Mount Asahi

Lake Saroma
A lagoon in northeastern Hokkaido. It is the third largest lake in Japan (area 151.8 km). It is separated from the Sea of ​​Okhotsk by a 30 km long sand spit, but because it is a brackish lake with seawater flowing in from a central opening (tidal mouth), scallops, oysters, Hokkai shrimp, sea urchins, and other creatures are cultivated there. It is included in Abashiri Quasi-National Park. Kitami City, Yubetsu Town, Monbetsu District, and Saroma Town, Tokoro District, Hokkaido ©Kitami City ">

Lake Saroma

Minamisōkandake and Sōkanbetsudake
A view from the Uryu Numa Marshland. On the left in the background of the photo is Minamisoukan-dake (1,296m above sea level), and on the right is Shokanbetsu-dake (1,491m), both of which form part of the Mashike Mountains. They are included in the Shokanbetsu-Teuri-Yagishiri Quasi-National Park. Uryu Town, Hokuryu Town, Uryu District, Shintotsukawa Town, Kabato District, Mashike Town, Mashike District © Hokkaido Sorachi Regional Development Bureau ">

Minamisōkandake and Sōkanbetsudake

Mount Komagatake and Lake Onuma
Mount Komagatake, also known as Oshima Fuji, and Lake Onuma, formed by the damming of its ejecta. This area, rich in nature, is designated as the Onuma Quasi-National Park. There are ski resorts and campsites in the surrounding area, and many people visit throughout the year. Hokkaido Kameda-gun Nanae-cho, Kayabe-gun Shikabe-cho, Mori-cho © Hakodate City Yunokawa Onsen Ryokan Association Hakodate International Tourism and Convention Association

Mount Komagatake and Lake Onuma

Mount Yotei
A beautiful cone-shaped volcano (1898m above sea level) also known as Ezo Fuji. Mt. Shiribetsu in the east is called Oyama, but also Mt. Maso. It is part of Shikotsu Toya National Park. The photo shows a view from near Niseko Town. Kutchan Town, Niseko Town, Makari Village, Kimobetsu Town, Kyogoku Town, Hokkaido © Hokkaido Goshi General Development Bureau Rural Promotion Division ">

Mount Yotei

Lake Toya
One of the most well-known caldera lakes. An island on the central crater cone floats in the lake. It is one of the centers of Shikotsu-Toya National Park, and is visited by approximately one million tourists annually. The photo shows the view from the south shore, with Mt. Yotei towering in the background. Sobetsu Town and Toyako Town, Usu District, Hokkaido © Sobetsu Town Economic and Environmental Affairs Division, Commerce, Industry and Tourism Office ">

Lake Toya

Kushiro Marsh
Japan's largest marsh spreads in eastern Hokkaido. It accounts for about 80% of the Kushiro Plain. The area was designated as the Kushiro Wetland National Park and is a valuable habitat for many wildlife, including the nationally designated special natural monument, cranes. In 1980, it became Japan's first registered wetland by Ramsar Treaty. Kushiro City, Kushiro Town, Kushiro District, Shibecha Town, Kawakami District, Tsurui Village, Akan District © Higashi Hokkaido Tourism Business Development Council ">

Kushiro Marsh

Upper Salobetsu wilderness
Rishiri Rebun Sarobetsu National Park area. Tomio Town, Tenshio District, Hokkaido © Ministry of the Environment ">

Upper Salobetsu wilderness

Esan
A double volcano located on the eastern end of the Kameda Peninsula, east of Hakodate City. It is an active volcano with vigorous fumarolic activity. The name of the mountain comes from the Ainu word "Iesan," which means "to spew fire and flow lava." The photo shows the vicinity of the explosion crater. Hakodate City, Hokkaido ©Hakodate City Yunokawa Onsen Ryokan Association Hakodate International Tourism and Convention Association ">

Esan

Nopporo Forest Park
This prefectural natural park was established to commemorate 100 years of Hokkaido development. Most of the park is national forest, and you can enjoy nature using the promenade. The photo shows the Hokkaido Centennial Memorial Tower (100m high), which was completed in 1970 (Showa 45). Sapporo City, Ebetsu City, and Kitahiroshima City, Hokkaido © Sapporo City Tourism and Culture Bureau ">

Nopporo Forest Park

Sapporo Agricultural College
Sapporo Ward, Hokkaido (present-day Sapporo City) "Famous Places of Japan" (1900 (Meiji 33)) National Diet Library

Sapporo Agricultural College

Horonai Coal Mine (Meiji Period)
Horonai Village, Sorachi County, Hokkaido (present-day Mikasa City). "Famous Places in Japan" (1900, Meiji 33), National Diet Library .

Horonai Coal Mine (Meiji Period)

Nibutani Ainu Culture Museum
A museum introducing traditional Ainu culture. Opened in 1992 (Heisei 4). It houses approximately 4,000 items of Ainu clothing, hunting equipment, ceremonial equipment, and other items, some of which have been designated as important tangible folk cultural properties in the country. Traditional houses and warehouses known as Chise are on display outside. Hiratoricho, Sairu-gun, Hokkaido © Hiratoricho ">

Nibutani Ainu Culture Museum

Showa Shinzan
A parasitic volcano (398m above sea level) of Mount Usu on the south shore of Lake Toya. Farmland in Sobetsu Town began to rise in 1944 (Showa 19), and a lava dome formed with repeated explosions. At the foot of the mountain stands a statue of Mimatsu Masao, who meticulously recorded the process of the formation of the new volcano. Part of Shikotsu-Toya National Park. Nationally designated special natural monument Sobetsu Town, Usu District, Hokkaido © Sobetsu Town Economic and Environmental Affairs Division, Commerce, Industry and Tourism Office ">

Showa Shinzan

Goryokaku
Its official name is Kameda Yakusho Dorui. It is a five-pointed star-shaped castle, construction of which began in 1857 (Ansei 4) and was completed in 1864 (Genji 1). It is now a park, and is also known as a famous cherry blossom viewing spot. Nationally designated special historic site Hakodate City, Hokkaido ©NetAdvance ">

Goryokaku

Kaminokuni Katsuyamakan ruins
A castle ruin on a hill overlooking the Sea of ​​Japan. The Katsuyamakan is the castle of the Takeda clan and Kakizaki clan (later Matsumae clan), built in the late 15th century, and was also known as the Kaminokuniwakikan, Kaminokunikan, Katsuyama Castle. Recent research has revealed over 100,000 items, including ceramics and metal products, and many other structures have been confirmed. Nationally designated historical sites Kaminokunicho, Hiyama-gun, Hokkaido ©Hiyama Development Bureau, Hokkaido ©Hiyama Promotion Bureau, Commerce, Industry, Labor and Tourism Division ">

Kaminokuni Katsuyamakan ruins

The remains of Shirao Sendai Domain Jinya
The remains of the former Sendai domain, which was ordered by the Edo Shogunate to guard Ezo in 1855 (Ansei 2). It is said that more than 100 samurai were stationed at all times. The photo shows the remains of an inner gull, which had the main camp and accounting station, and shows the appearance of the time when it was surrounded by moats and earthen ramparts. Nationally designated historic site Shiraoi-cho, Shiraoi-gun, Hokkaido © Shiraoi-Tourist Association, General Incorporated Association ">

The remains of Shirao Sendai Domain Jinya

Sapporo Clock Tower
This is the training hall of the former Sapporo Agricultural College (the predecessor of Hokkaido University). The clock and chime on the tower are symbols of Sapporo. Inside the building, materials related to the agricultural college are on display as the Sapporo History Museum. Sapporo City, Hokkaido © Sapporo City Tourism and Culture Bureau ">

Sapporo Clock Tower

Former Hokkaido Government Office Building
The building served as the basis for Hokkaido development and the centre of the road. Built in 1888 (Meiji 21), it is a representative building of Japan's Meiji period. It is a brick structure with an American style neo-Baroque style, and is still nicknamed "red brick". In 1968 (Showa 43), it is restored to its original state to commemorate the "Hyakuen Year of Hokkaido." The interior is the Hokkaido archives, which hold ancient documents related to Hokkaido. Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Sapporo, Hokkaido © Fujino Yuya ">

Former Hokkaido Government Office Building

Toyohirakan
The guesthouse was built by the pioneering service in 1880 (Meiji 13). It is a two-story wooden building, and is one of the most representative Western-style buildings in Hokkaido during the Meiji period. It was moved to its current location (Nakajima Park) with the construction of the civic hall in 1958 (Showa 33). It is currently used as a municipal general wedding venue. Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Sapporo, Hokkaido © Sapporo Tourism and Culture Bureau ">

Toyohirakan

Former Hakodate Ward Public Hall
The public hall in Hakodate Ward (now Hakodate City) was built to replace the town hall that was burned down in the great fire in 1907 (Meiji 40). Completed in 1910. The wooden two-story main building (photo) is a simulated Western-style building with a balcony in front, and is one of the few remains of the public hall building of the Meiji period. Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Hakodate City, Hokkaido © Hakodate City Yunokawa Hot Springs Inn Cooperative Association Hakodate International Tourism Convention Association ">

Former Hakodate Ward Public Hall

The Battle of Hakodate
A picture of the Hakodate War, the final battle of the Boshin War. It depicts the battle in Matsumae, Ezo. The figure on horseback is Itakura Katsushige of the Shogunate army, and the castle in the background is Fukuyama Castle. Utagawa Yoshitora, "In the summer of the Boshin War, in the first year of the Meiji era, the brave retainers of the former Shogunate lost the Todai War and fled to Oshu, then marched to Hakodate and fought again at Matsumae Castle," triptych, owned by the National Diet Library .

The Battle of Hakodate


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

本州と津軽海峡で隔てられ、北緯41度20分以北、日本の最北端の北海道本島と若干の小島からなる地方。国土の約22％を占める。

　ロシア領にもっとも近接する千島列島(ちしまれっとう)のうち、南の国後(くなしり)島、択捉(えとろふ)島、色丹(しこたん)島、歯舞(はぼまい)群島は、第二次世界大戦前日本人が定住して町村制が施行され、北海道庁の管轄下にあった。この北方四島の返還を国の方針とする現在、本道の公表面積には4島の面積約5036.14平方キロメートルが含まれる。本道はロシアに近いだけでなく、アメリカへの最短コースにあたるので戦略的に重視される。オホーツク海に面する国内唯一の地方として流氷がみられ、また温暖な国土のなかでは寒冷な気候条件から山容が緩やかで雄大感があり、開発の歴史が新しく未開の原始景観の残ることと相まって、魅力を高めている。

　これら自然のなかで狩猟漁労生活を営むアイヌ民族の天地として、長く蝦夷地(えぞち)とよばれた。和人（中・近世に本州から移住した日本人のこと）の定住は江戸時代には道南の一部に限られ、奥地には交易や漁業の目的で季節的に少数が赴くにすぎなかった。幕末に北太平洋が捕鯨の舞台となり、欧米の外国艦船の出没が機縁となって、松前藩から幕府の直轄下に入った。このころから幕府役人による多くの探検調査が行われたが、その一人松浦武四郎(たけしろう)の建言で、明治維新後の1869年（明治2）北海道と改められた。その後、開拓使、屯田兵(とんでんへい)制、大土地処分などを通じて植民開拓が進み、和人が大多数を占めるに至った。

　2015年（平成27）の国勢調査では人口538万1733、面積8万3424.31平方キロメートル、人口密度は1平方キロメートル当り68.6人で全国でもっとも少なく、多くの施策にかかわらず人口の微増、ときに微減状態が続いている。このなかで主要都市、とくに札幌周辺への人口集中が高く、札幌市は全道人口の約36％を占める。逆に炭鉱都市は人口減が目だち、なかでも歌志内(うたしない)市は、2008年段階で5000人を割っている。2018年4月現在、35市9総合振興局5振興局129町15村（国後・択捉・色丹の6村を除く）に区画されている。道庁所在地は札幌市。

［柏村一郎］

自然

地形

北海道は緩やかに弧を描く菱(ひし)形の胴体部と、南西部にS字形に延びる半島部が、石狩(いしかり)・勇払(ゆうふつ)低地帯で結ばれ一島を形成している。胴体部は樺太(からふと)（サハリン）から南に延びる蝦夷山系と、カムチャツカ半島から南西に延びる千島弧が、菱形の対角線の位置を占めて会合し山地の骨格となる。蝦夷山系は、宗谷(そうや)岬から南北に細長く比較的低い天塩(てしお)山地が高峻(こうしゅん)な夕張(ゆうばり)山地や日高山脈に続き、襟裳(えりも)岬に終わるのを中軸とし、東には北見山地が北から南へ高度を増して石狩山地に至り、南東の低い白糠(しらぬか)丘陵に続く。その間に中央凹地帯があって北から南へ頓別(とんべつ)平野、名寄(なよろ)盆地、上川(かみかわ)盆地、富良野(ふらの)盆地と続き、南では関東平野と同じ成因の構造盆地とされる広い十勝(とかち)平野が介在する。また千島弧は北海道東部火山地域を形成し、東から中央にかけて知床(しれとこ)、阿寒(あかん)、然別(しかりべつ)、大雪(たいせつ)山、十勝岳の各火山群が並び、カルデラ湖の摩周(ましゅう)湖、屈斜路(くっしゃろ)湖、阿寒湖を擁する阿寒摩周国立公園、オホーツク海に突出する知床半島を中心とする知床国立公園、道内最高峰旭(あさひ)岳（2291メートル）を含む大雪山国立公園をもつ。なお、2005年（平成17）知床半島北部および沿岸海域は、その貴重な自然と多様な生態系により、世界遺産条約に基づき世界自然遺産「知床」として登録された。また氷河地形をもつ日高山脈襟裳国定公園、オホーツク海に面し、潟湖(せきこ)のサロマ湖・能取(のとろ)湖や砂丘の続く網走(あばしり)国定公園など、自然景観に富む所が多い。これらに付随して東端に低平な根釧(こんせん)台地、西端に古い火山の暑寒別(しょかんべつ)岳を含む増毛(ましけ)山地がある。後者は日本海に浮かぶ2小島を含め、暑寒別天売焼尻(しょかんべつてうりやぎしり)国定公園となっている。

　一方、南西の半島部は新第三紀層が広く覆う渡島(おしま)山地が骨格となり、南に駒ヶ岳(こまがたけ)火山群、北に羊蹄(ようてい)、樽前(たるまえ)などの火山群があり、中に内浦湾を挟む。この地域には支笏(しこつ)湖・洞爺(とうや)湖などカルデラ湖を擁する支笏洞爺国立公園のほか、日本海岸を含むニセコ積丹小樽(しゃこたんおたる)海岸国定公園、駒ヶ岳を中心とする大沼国定公園がある。一般に北海道の山地は緩やかな山容を呈して雄大感を強めるが、これは過去の周氷河気候の影響を示すものと考えられる。平野は胴体部の周辺に多く、また中央凹地帯に盆地が連なる。主要河川は中央高山に発し日本海や太平洋岸に達する。日本海側では上川、富良野両盆地を経て石狩・勇払低地帯に石狩平野を展開する石狩川水系、名寄盆地を北上する天塩川水系があり、太平洋側では十勝平野を流れる十勝川水系があって、いずれも本道の主要農業地帯を形成する。河川下流部には低湿な泥炭地が多いのが特徴で、釧路(くしろ)川下流の釧路湿原、天塩川下流のサロベツ原野などは未開の自然景観で知られ、前者は釧路湿原国立公園、後者は利尻礼文(りしりれぶん)サロベツ国立公園に指定されている。道内に釧路湿原など13のラムサール条約登録湿地が所在する。なお、道立自然公園に厚岸(あっけし)、富良野芦別(ふらのあしべつ)、檜山(ひやま)、恵山(えさん)、野付風蓮(のつけふうれん)、北オホーツク、野幌(のっぽろ)森林公園、松前矢越(まつまえやごし)、狩場茂津多(かりばもった)、朱鞠内(しゅまりない)、天塩(てしお)岳、斜里(しゃり)岳の12がある。

［柏村一郎］

気候

日本列島の最北にあって冬の長く厳しい寒さとさわやかな夏、美しく彩られるが短い春と秋など、本州にみられない特徴をもつ。しかしこれらの特徴は、胴体部が典型で、半島部は東北地方の気候に近く相対的に温暖である。胴体部も太平洋、日本海、オホーツク海と異なる海に囲まれるため、低地は年平均気温約6～8℃で差は少ないが、季節的な差は大きい。夏にもっとも低温の地は根室(ねむろ)、釧路で平均17～18℃前後、同じ沿岸の網走や稚内(わっかない)より1℃以上低い。これは、太平洋岸に寒流の親潮と暖流の黒潮が接触し、海霧（ガス）の発生で日射を妨げるからである。反対に冬は晴天に恵まれるが、雪が少ないため地面の凍結が深い。日本海岸は暖流の対馬(つしま)海流の影響で温暖であるが、冬には西風が卓越して降雪をもたらし、背後の山地帯は2メートル余の積雪地となる。オホーツク海岸は2月には流氷が南下して接岸し、根室海峡を経て根室に及ぶ。このため紋別(もんべつ)、網走、根室では2月が最寒月となる。気候的に対照的な太平洋岸と日本海岸に比べ、オホーツク海岸はその中間で、年間の降水のバランスがよく、量も1000ミリメートルを割り、日本で最少の地方である。沿海部に対し、内陸部の盆地は大陸的気候を示し、冬は最寒地、夏は最暖地となる。たとえば上川盆地の旭川(あさひかわ)や十勝平野の帯広では1月平均気温はマイナス8℃前後、ときにマイナス30℃以下になる。旭川の北の美深(びふか)、音威子府(おといねっぷ)、幌加内(ほろかない)町の母子里(もしり)、十勝地方北部の陸別(りくべつ)など、ときにマイナス40℃にも達する最寒の地として知られる。逆に夏は最高温に達し、8月の平均気温は20℃、日中は30℃を超えることもある。

［柏村一郎］

生物相

動物

日本列島がまだ大陸と陸続きで日本海が湖であったころ、北方から樺太(からふと)（サハリン）を経由して北海道から本州以南へ、旧北区系の動物が分布を広げていた。2万年ほど前に津軽(つがる)海峡ができたため、哺乳(ほにゅう)類ではヒグマ、シマリス、クロテン、氷期の遺存種ナキウサギなどは本州へ移住することができなかった。一方、南方から本州までやってきたニホンザル、ツキノワグマ、ニホンカモシカなどは北海道には渡れずに終わった。約1万年前には宗谷海峡(そうやかいきょう)ができて大陸と隔てられた。宗谷海峡には、両生類、爬虫(はちゅう)類などの分布から動物分布境界線の八田線(はったせん)が設定され、また津軽海峡には、鳥類などの分布から提唱されたブレーキストン線が引かれている。鳥類ではエゾライチョウ、シマフクロウ、ヤマゲラ、ハシブトガラなど日本では北海道のみにみられるものもいるが、繁殖するもののうち本州との共通種は約70％で、津軽海峡はそれほど明確な境界とはなっていない。昆虫では、たとえば氷期の遺存種とみられる高山ガの珍種クロダケタカネヨトウなどの大雪(たいせつ)山のみの特産種や、国の天然記念物のダイセツタカネヒカゲ、ウスバキチョウ、アサヒヒョウモンなどの高山チョウなど、ユーラシアの北方に同種ないし亜種が分布し、日本では北海道にしかいないものも少なくないが、やはり津軽海峡はかならずしも重要ではない。淡水魚では、世界で北海道のみというドジョウ科のエゾホトケ、キュウリウオ科のシシャモがおり、サケ科のイトウ、オショロコマなど8種が日本では北海道のみに分布している。

［桜井道夫］

植生

北海道は中央を走る脊梁(せきりょう)山脈（日高山脈など）で東西に二分され、東側を亜寒帯林、西側を冷温帯林と大まかに分けられているが、詳しくみると、寿都(すっつ)と長万部(おしゃまんべ)を結ぶ黒松内低地帯(くろまつないていちたい)に植生分布の境がある。これ以南は東北地方と共通した植生をもち、ブナ、ヒノキアスナロなどはここを北限とし、北方種としてのエゾマツなどはここを南限としている。また、北海道では冷温帯落葉広葉樹の代表的樹種であるミズナラ、イタヤカエデ、シナノキ、ウダイカンバ、ヤチダモ、ハンノキなどの林が道内至る所でみられ、これらがエゾマツ、トドマツなどの亜寒帯針葉樹林とモザイク状に混交するために、生態的には亜寒帯と冷温帯の移行帯、つまり針広混交林帯として認識されている。大雪山、日高山脈、阿寒にはエゾマツ、アカエゾマツ、トドマツなどの原生的針葉樹林が残されている。丘陵地や山麓(さんろく)には落葉広葉樹林があり、札幌の藻岩山(もいわやま)や円山(まるやま)には良好な例がみられる。河川下流域にはしばしば広大な泥炭湿原が発達し、ミズゴケやスゲを主とした特異な景観が認められる。釧路湿原、サロベツ原野などがとくに有名である。海岸砂丘はヒオウギアヤメ、エゾスカシユリ、エゾキスゲ、ハマナスなどで彩られる。小清水(こしみず)海岸、浜頓別(はまとんべつ)湖（クッチャロ湖）などの砂丘は原生花園の名で知られるが、これらは放牧による半自然植生である。大雪山や知床、利尻(りしり)、礼文(れぶん)などの高山帯には多くの高山植物が生育する。なかでも大雪山の高山植物は量的にも多く、日本の宝庫とさえいわれ、分布地理上からも重要であるため、研究者がよく訪れる。

［鮫島惇一郎］

歴史

北海道の歴史は沖縄の場合と同様に、日本社会のほかの地域とは異なった独自の発展過程を歩んでおり、前近代においてその傾向が著しい。その基本的な特徴を指摘するならば、(1)先土器文化に続く土器文化が紀元前6000年前から13世紀ごろまで存続し、縄文文化→続縄文文化→擦文(さつもん)文化（道北東部ではオホーツク文化が併存）といった継起的発展を遂げ、そのなかからいわゆるアイヌ文化が形成されてきたこと、(2)こうしたアイヌ民族の居住する蝦夷(えぞ)地に、12世紀ごろから和人が渡来し始め、アイヌ民族と対抗しつつ道南地方に和人政権を成立させ、それが商場知行制(あきないばちぎょうせい)（のちに場所請負制へ移行）を経済的基盤とする近世の松前(まつまえ)藩に発展すること、(3)維新後、明治政府はこの地を北海道と改称し、日本資本主義の内国植民地として位置づけ、囚人や土工、一般移民を投入してその開拓を意図したこと、である。それは、北海道が内国植民地から「内地」化する過程でもあった。

［桑原真人］

先史・古代

現在のところもっとも古い先土器時代の遺跡は、剥片(はくへん)を利用した石器をもつ約2万年前の千歳(ちとせ)市祝梅三角山遺跡(しゅくばいさんかくやまいせき)、上士幌(かみしほろ)町嶋木遺跡(しまきいせき)などである。やがて石刃技法でつくられた石器が普及し、続いて湧別(ゆうべつ)技法などによる細石刃文化の段階に達し、次に弓矢の使用をうかがわせる石器が現れて終末期を迎えた。

　土器が出現し、明確に縄文時代を迎えるのは約8000年前である。石狩低地帯を境に東北地方からの影響を強く受ける南西部と、北海道的伝統をもつ北東部では、その文化に差異がみられた。初期には貝殻文土器が広く分布し、北東部は平底、南西部は尖底(せんてい)であった。約6000年前から土器の大型化が始まり、尖底土器が姿を消し、やがて南西部では東北地方を本拠とする円筒式土器をもつ文化が、北東部では北筒式土器をもつ文化が発達した。縄文時代の最後である3000～2000年前には本州から渡ってきた亀ヶ岡(かめがおか)式土器が石狩低地帯まで波及し、低地帯の北東側の土器にも影響を与えた。西暦紀元前後には弥生(やよい)文化が北日本に波及したが、北海道では依然として狩猟漁労の生活が続き、縄文土器の系統を継ぐ土器が使用された。それでこの文化を続縄文文化とよんでいる。弥生文化の影響を受けて金属器が使用され、管玉やビーズ玉も入ってきた。続縄文文化の末、7世紀には北方系の海獣猟を中心とした漁労文化であるオホーツク文化が、オホーツク海沿岸から千島(ちしま)列島などの流氷接岸地帯に広がった。金属器とともに石器も多く、多様な骨角器を発達させた。遺跡では、大規模な住居跡、墓地を伴う網走(あばしり)市最寄貝塚(もよろかいづか)が著名である。8世紀ころには、本州文化の強い影響のもとに最後の土器文化である擦文文化が広がった。土師器(はじき)との関連をうかがわせる刷毛目(はけめ)のついた擦文土器をもち、鉄器を使い、石器はみられない。小規模ながら農耕も行われた。オホーツク文化と同じく、12、13世紀に終末を迎えた。

　一方、奈良・平安時代の北海道は、中央政府から渡島(わたりしま)とよばれ、渡島の蝦夷は交易のため毛皮類をもって渡来した。出羽(でわ)国がこれを管轄し、私交易を禁じた。平安時代末になると、蝦夷ヶ島、蝦夷ヶ千島とよばれるようになった。

［小林真人］

中世

鎌倉幕府は蝦夷島を重罪人の流刑地とし、津軽安東氏(つがるあんどうし)（安藤氏）を蝦夷管領(かんれい)に任じこれを統轄させた。鎌倉時代の蝦夷島には日の本(ひのもと)、唐古(からこ)、渡党(わたりとう)の3類が住み、渡党は交易のために津軽外ヶ浜に渡来したといい、20隻に及ぶ関東御免津軽船が蝦夷島の産物を積んで日本海を航行した。安東氏の本拠のあった十三湊(みなと)は室町時代に至るまで夷船(いせん)、京船でにぎわった。このような交易活動の活発化に伴い、13世紀には擦文文化が終わりを告げ、近世アイヌ的文化の形成が始まった。

　室町時代中期になると、渡島(おしま)半島南部には安東氏輩下の小豪族である館主(たてぬし)が割拠していたが、安東氏の弱体化により1456年（康正2）コシャマインの蜂起(ほうき)に始まるアイヌ民族を巻き込んだ長い戦乱に突入した。この戦乱のなかで、アイヌ民族は木柵(もくさく)と空堀で囲まれた砦(とりで)であるチャシを築き、また、いくつものコタンを統率する首長層も現れた。

［小林真人］

近世

1514年（永正11）上ノ国(かみのくに)の蠣崎氏(かきざきうじ)（後の松前氏）が館主を統一し、徳山（松前町）に新城を築き、1551年（天文20）には東西のアイヌと講和し、対アイヌ交易を城下で行う体制を確立した。1593年（文禄2）に豊臣(とよとみ)秀吉から朱印状を、1604年（慶長9）には徳川家康から対アイヌ交易の独占を認める黒印状を得、近世松前藩が成立した。寛永(かんえい)年間（1624～1644）のころには藩領域を明確にする必要から、蝦夷島を和人地（松前地）と蝦夷地に分け、城下交易を廃止して蝦夷地内にアイヌと交易する商場を設け、これを上級家臣に分与した。商場知行＝商場交易制の成立である。1669年（寛文9）のシャクシャインの蜂起が蝦夷地全域に波及するのは、蝦夷地内に縛り付けられたことに対するアイヌの不満が底流にあったからである。

　一商場に派遣できる船は夏船一隻に限られていたが、元禄(げんろく)年間（1688～1704）ころから、秋味(あきあじ)、鱒(ます)、海鼠引(なまこびき)など特定名目で船の派遣を許したので、蝦夷地内での漁業も活発化し、点にすぎなかった商場も、漁業を行う場所を含めた空間的な広がりをもつようになった。また、場所の経営を商人が請け負う場所請負制も享保(きょうほう)年間（1716～1736）ころから顕在化し、天明(てんめい)年間（1830～1844）には和人地での鰊漁(にしんりょう)がほとんどできなくなり、和人漁民が蝦夷地に入漁する鰊二八取(にはちとり)漁業が発達し始めた。1789年（寛政1）の国後(くなしり)・目梨(めなし)のアイヌの大蜂起と、翌年の和人地漁民の一揆(いっき)は、場所請負人の横暴に対する抵抗であった。

　一方、18世紀も後半になると、ロシア勢力の南下が顕在化し、幕府も蝦夷地に目を向け始めた。天明年間の蝦夷地開拓計画は田沼意次(おきつぐ)の失脚で挫折(ざせつ)したが、1792年ロシア使節ラクスマンが根室(ねむろ)に、1796年英船プロビデンス号が虻田(あぶた)沖に来航したため、1799年幕府は東蝦夷地を仮上知(あげち)し蝦夷地の経営に着手した。1802年（享和2）には蝦夷地奉行(ぶぎょう)（のち箱館奉行(はこだてぶぎょう)）を置き、永上知に改めた。さらに1807年（文化4）には松前・西蝦夷地も召し上げ、翌年奉行所を箱館から松前に移し、松前奉行と改称した。しかし、ロシアの脅威が薄れ、蝦夷地経営も思わしくなかったため、1822年（文政5）からふたたび松前藩が松前・蝦夷地の経営にあたった。

　1854年（安政1）日米和親条約に伴う箱館開港に備え、幕府はふたたび箱館付近を上知して箱館奉行を置き、翌1855年には松前・江差(えさし)方面を除く松前・蝦夷地を直轄した。1859年には警衛にあたっていた6藩に蝦夷地を分与した。また、幕府は和人の蝦夷地永住を許すなど内陸部の開拓を積極的に進め、1861年（文久1）には山越内関所(やまこしないせきしょ)を撤廃し、和人地と蝦夷地の往来を自由にした。ここに蝦夷地はその存立の意義を失うに至った。

［小林真人］

近代

維新変革により成立した明治政府は、幕領下の蝦夷地を支配した箱館奉行所にかわり、1868年（慶応4）4月に箱館裁判所を設置した。同閏(うるう)4月、裁判所は箱館府と改称されたが、これらはいずれも地方行政機関でありながら、同時に蝦夷地開拓という国家的事業を兼務するという変則的な機構であった。そのうえ、同年10月からの箱館戦争の影響もあり、開拓はほとんど進まなかった。箱館戦争では、榎本武揚(えのもとたけあき)の率いる旧幕府軍が蝦夷地鷲ノ木(わしのき)（森町）に上陸、箱館や松前で新政府軍・松前藩兵と戦い、蝦夷地を占領した。榎本は士官以上の投票で総裁に選ばれ、いわゆる榎本政権が樹立されたが、翌年5月には政府軍に敗れ降伏した。

　しかし、蝦夷地開拓を重視した政府は、1869年（明治2）7月、その専掌機関として太政官(だじょうかん)直属の開拓使を設置し、8月に蝦夷地は北海道と改称された。開拓使は、近世以来の場所請負制を開拓の阻害要因とみて廃止の方針を打ち出し（1876年全廃）、北海道の新たな政治的拠点となる札幌本府の建設に着手した。ただし、全道の開拓実施は困難なため、札幌など重要地を開拓使の直轄とするほかは、本州の諸藩や華族・士族に開拓を委任する分領支配の方式がとられた。が、こうした方式では全道の統一的な開拓が不可能となるため、1871年8月までに廃止され、開拓使の直轄となった。この間、渡島半島西部の旧松前藩領は、1869年以後、館(たて)藩→館県と改称され、1871年には青森県の管轄下にあったが、翌年開拓使に移管された。また、当初開拓使管下の樺太(からふと)には、ロシアとの外交関係の緊迫化により、1870年樺太開拓使が置かれたが、翌年開拓使に併合されている。1870年5月、開拓次官に就任した黒田清隆(きよたか)（1874年開拓長官）は、同10月、樺太の放棄と西洋技術の導入を骨子とする北海道開拓に関する建議を行った。これにより、1872年からの10年間に総額1000万円の経費を北海道の開拓事業に投下するという開拓使十年計画が発足することとなった。まず開拓使顧問としてアメリカの農務省長官ホーレス・ケプロンが招かれ、アメリカ人を中心とする多数のお雇い外国人が来道した。彼らの指導の下に、開拓使は、道内の地下資源調査、道路建設、河川や港湾の整備、幌内鉄道(ぽろないてつどう)の建設など開拓の基礎事業に着手した。さらに、士族集団を中心とする移民の招来、屯田兵(とんでんへい)制度の実施、札幌農学校の創設などが行われ、これらの事業に支出された経費は、当初額の2倍以上の2082万円余に達している。十年計画終了直前の1881年には、「明治十四年の政変」の発火点となる開拓使官有物払下げ事件が起こり、払下げ計画は中止された。翌1882年2月、開拓使は廃止され、札幌、函館(はこだて)、根室の3県が設置された。1883年1月には、従来の官営諸事業を総括する農商務省北海道事業管理局も設置された。しかし、この3県1局体制は行政の不統一や開拓の進展を阻害する結果となり、1886年1月には3県を廃止、新たに北海道庁が設置された。初代長官岩村通俊(みちとし)は従来の移民政策に顕著な直接保護を廃止し、行政の簡素化や官営事業の払下げ、殖民地選定(せんてい)事業の実施などのいわゆる間接保護政策を採用し、安上がりの開拓を図った。土地政策でも、1886年の北海道土地払下規制、1897年の北海道国有未開地処分法の公布によって大地積の処分が進行し、道外の華族、政治家、資本家を地主とする大土地所有が各地で成立する契機を与えた。1890年代に入ると、本州方面からの北海道移民が急増したこともあって、北海道は本格的な開拓時代を迎え、こうした状況が1920年（大正9）前後まで続いた。このため、1886年に30万人弱であった道内人口は、1901年（明治34）に100万人を超え、1920年には約236万人に増加した。また耕地面積も、1886年の2万5000余町歩が、1920年には84万余町に達している。

　このように、北海道の開拓が内陸部を中心に進行するにつれ、それまで北海道を対象外としていた行政上の近代的諸制度も、逐次適用されるようになった。たとえば、市町村制の施行は、1899年の区制（1922年に市制）、1900年の一級町村制、1902年の二級町村制として、また、衆議院議員選挙法の施行は1902年に、それぞれ実現している。しかし、こうした道民の権利に属する制度よりも、1889年の函館などでの徴兵令施行（全道施行は1898年）にみられるように、その義務的制度のほうが、率先して施行された点に特徴がある。ともあれ、近代的諸制度の北海道への適用は1922年前後を頂点としており、この時期の北海道が内国植民地的性格を払拭(ふっしょく)して「内地」化する一画期となったことを示している。しかしながら開拓の進展の陰では、1899年の北海道旧土人保護法公布に端的に示されるアイヌ民族への差別と酷使、1890年代にとくに過酷だった囚人労働、第二次世界大戦まで北海道の土木事業にはつきもののタコ部屋とよばれる飯場制度など、開拓にまつわる多くの犠牲が存在していたのである。とりわけ、囚人労働、タコ労働と続く北海道の強制労働の系譜は、第二次世界大戦下では、北炭などの炭鉱や鉱山を中心とする朝鮮人・中国人の強制連行として実現するのである。

［桑原真人］

現代

第二次世界大戦前段階において、逐次「内地」化への道を歩みつつあった北海道であるが、北海道会法、指定町村制（二級町村制の後身）などのなかに依然として内国植民地的性格を残していた。しかし、こうした特別の制度は、1946年（昭和21）9月の道府県制の公布によって消滅し、翌1947年5月、地方自治法の施行により、「内地」他府県と同一の地方自治体である北海道が成立した。また、日本は敗戦によってすべての海外植民地を失ったため、国内的にもっとも未利用資源の多い北海道が開発の対象として注目され、1950年に北海道開発法が制定された。その実施機関として北海道開発庁および出先機関の北海道開発局が設置されたが、これは本来一体的に行われるべき北海道の開発行政が、政府と地方自治体とに分離されることを意味し、その是非をめぐってさまざまの議論がなされた。その後2001年（平成13）1月、北海道開発庁は、中央省庁再編に伴い建設省などとともに再編統合され国土交通省となった。同省の内部部局である北海道局は、北海道開発庁が規模を縮小して格下げになったものである。これは、北海道の開発行政から政府が手を引いたとはいえないまでも、道庁の北海道開発行政における主導権確立の第一歩となるであろう。

［桑原真人］

産業

明治以来、北海道は農林水産業、石炭鉱業など、現地資源を開発する第一次産業の発展を基盤にしてきた。この間、国の北海道開発に向けられた資金と指導の影響は大きく、本道産業の官依存傾向は根強い。これによって北海道は米、牛乳、水産物などの食糧基地となり、またエネルギー供給地の役割を担ってきた。しかし歴史が浅いため民間資本の蓄積が不十分で、工業化の点では主要工業は本州資本の進出で成立するなど、地元工業は大いに立ち遅れた。自由貿易を基調に安い海外産物の導入傾向が強まると、国の保護助成で成長した本道産業は根底から揺さぶられるに至った。埋蔵量がありながら採算面で多くの炭鉱は閉山に追い込まれ、良質米の少ない米作は米の生産調整で大幅な減反転作を強いられ、北洋漁業の縮小は本道水産業を直撃し、ひいて造船業の不振となり、さらに鉄需要の減少は歴史ある本道鉄鋼業を縮小させるなど、道内の基幹産業は大きな試練に直面している。

［柏村一郎］

農業

北海道の耕地面積は116万9000ヘクタール（2005）で道総面積の約15％にあたる。うち牧草地45％、畑35％、水田20％で、他府県と大きく異なる。農産物粗生産額では生乳が首位、米がこれに次ぎ、ほかを大きく引き離している。米の主産地は道央石狩川流域の空知(そらち)・上川地方で全道の約4分の3（2007）にあたるが、水田利用再編対策のため本道の減反割当ては全国一高く、主産地でも転作は著しい。とくに道北、道東では水田が姿を消している。しかし価格の安定した作物として、規模も大きく生産費の安い本道米作は基幹農業である。これに対し、酪農は道東の十勝、根室、釧路、網走、それに道北の上川北部、宗谷の各地方が中核であり、とくに気候的制約の多い根室、釧路、道北地方では圧倒的に酪農に依存する。これら地方では農家1戸当りの乳牛保有数は平均100頭（根室では120頭）を超えている。しかし経営耕地面積不足による飼料、とくに濃厚飼料の購入、優良乳牛導入や畜舎関係施設などで多額の借金を抱え経営は楽ではない。また生乳価格安定や本州零細酪農との衝突など問題も多い。畑作は十勝・網走地方が中心で、ジャガイモ、豆類、ビートなど本道の特産品が多い。また小麦や大豆、アズキは水田転換作物として、前記2地方のほか米産地の上川や空知でも増えている。蔬菜(そさい)や果実では地域特化が目だち、富良野盆地のニンジン、羊蹄山麓のアスパラガス、北見・富良野・岩見沢・札幌のタマネギ、夕張のメロン、余市(よいち)・仁木(にき)のリンゴ、ブドウなどがある。農家数は5万1990戸（2005）、1戸当り耕地は19.8ヘクタールで、10ヘクタール以上の農家は54％を占め、専業農家率も52％に達する。耕地面積が広く専業農家の多い点で他府県の農業と大きく異なる。開拓当初アメリカなど西洋の農法を取り入れた伝統は、道東の畑作酪農地帯に強く残り、大型機械施設の導入が盛んで、その物置やサイロ畜舎などが母屋(おもや)を圧して点在する風景は、欧米的な雰囲気を与える。

［柏村一郎］

林業

森林面積は533万9000ヘクタール（2005）で、北海道の65％を占める。うち国有林が55％、私有林が27％、公有林が18％である。地域的には上川・網走・十勝地方にまたがる山地帯が森林地の40％を占めて林業の中心となっている。針葉樹中心の造林が進み、広葉樹6に対し針葉樹4の割合になっているが、全体の70％を占める天然林に限ると、広葉樹の割合はさらに高く、その80％に達する。伐採利用される樹種ではエゾマツ、トドマツ、カラマツが圧倒的に多く、針葉樹のほとんどにあたる。広葉樹ではナラ、ブナその他種類も多いが、いまは総量では針葉樹の半分に満たない。品質はよいためインチ材としてヨーロッパ諸国にも輸出される。林業・狩猟業従事者は安い外国材輸入による不況の影響を受け、1960年をピークに減少し、1990年には8000人を割っている。かつては流送や森林軌道で搬出したが、いまはトラック輸送が中心である。

［柏村一郎］

水産業

太平洋、日本海、オホーツク海に四周を囲まれた北海道は、沿岸に寒暖流が交わる水産資源の宝庫である。江戸時代中期以降、本道発展の原動力は水産業であり、沿岸の漁業の町は歴史も古く、内陸開拓の基地でもあった。道南のコンブ、ニシン、道東のサケ・マスなど地先漁業から、日露戦争後の函館(はこだて)を基地とする北洋漁業へと発展したが、第二次世界大戦で水産業は衰退の極に達した。戦後は北洋漁場の縮小により、日本海の武蔵堆(むさしたい)、大和(やまと)堆、オホーツク海の北見大和堆など近海沖合漁場も開発し、漁船の動力化・大型化によって漁況の回復を図るが、国際問題もからんで停滞気味ながらも漁獲量124万余トン（2006）は全国一の水産王国を保持する。魚種はスケトウダラ、サケ、イカ、サンマ、ホッケなど寒流系のものが多い。養殖も1980年代後半より盛んに進められ、古い歴史をもつサケの捕獲採卵や稚魚放流も道東を中心に行われて、北洋サケ・マス漁場の縮小を補うほか、零細漁民のためのコンブ増殖、オホーツク海の特産ホタテガイの養殖など収量増大の努力が重ねられている。古い歴史の道南や日本海沿岸はニシン回遊がとだえて以来、漁業不振による出稼ぎ漁民が増えてさびれた。一方、主要漁場に近く港湾設備の整う太平洋岸の釧路、根室花咲(はなさき)、厚岸(あっけし)、宗谷海峡の稚内、津軽海峡の函館、オホーツク海沿岸の紋別、網走など特定の漁港に漁獲物が集中する。とくに釧路は水揚高全国有数を誇る。しかし日米加および日ロ漁業条約に基づく日本への漁獲割当て交渉で、米ロ200海里水域での自国水産資源保護の強い姿勢により、北洋漁場の漁獲量削減は厳しさを加え、北洋出漁基地である釧路、花咲、稚内、函館などに打撃を与えている。その一方、西日本水域での韓国との漁業交渉の影響で、本道周辺の水域には韓国漁船が活動し、沿岸漁民との紛争を生じるなど、国際関係が本道水産業に強く投影されている。

［柏村一郎］

鉱業

明治以後の内陸開発で最初に着目され、開発されたのは石炭資源である。石狩炭田の幌内炭山(ほろないたんざん)（三笠市）は小樽(おたる)港と、夕張炭山は室蘭(むろらん)港とそれぞれ結ぶ北海道初期の鉄道建設をもたらし、歌志内炭山(うたしないたんざん)は鉄道の内陸延長に糸口を与えるなど開発を促進した。その後、金鉱、鉄鉱、水銀鉱など局地的開発に資した鉱産資源も出たが一時的であり、石炭ほど長期かつ広範に本道開発に寄与したものはない。しかし海外輸入の安い石油や石炭に押されて閉山、減産を強いられ、最盛期の2000万トン台から2000年度（平成12）には215万トンに低下した。2002年1月、太平洋炭礦（釧路）の閉山を最後に大規模炭鉱はすべて姿を消し、小規模な露天堀り炭鉱が残るのみとなった。石炭は需要の大半を占める電力・鉄鋼業の動向に左右され、いまは一般燃料炭生産のみで、それも電力価格引下げの障害とみられ将来性が薄い。このため炭鉱都市は浮沈の瀬戸際にたたされている。非鉄金属鉱業は小資本が多く、海外市況の好不況に強く左右されて不安定な操業を繰り返していた。半島部に多く、豊羽(とよは)（札幌）の鉛・亜鉛・インジウム、恵庭(えにわ)の金・銀などが近年まで稼動していたが、いずれも閉山となった。

［柏村一郎］

工業

北海道の工業は、農林水産業など本道経済の基幹である第一次産業の基盤のうえに成り立ち、食料品製造業や木材木製品製造業など軽工業が優越する点に特徴がある。2004年度の工業統計によれば、従業員4人以上の事業所数7244のうち、軽工業は約60％で、また従業者数も、約19万のうち、軽工業が65％で、重化学工業を上回っている。さらに出荷額においても軽工業は57％を占め、重化学工業のそれを上回る。いずれの場合においても食料品製造業は首位にあり、ほかを大きく離している。出荷額5兆2630億円の内訳をみると、第1位の食料品は1兆8110億円で、第2位の石油・石炭工業の4630億円の4倍に近い。第3位が紙パルプ工業で4150億円、鉄鋼業は3460億円で第5位。このように重化学工業の面で劣勢であることが、工業集積上の大きな弱点とされている。これを地域的にみると、工業出荷額では室蘭、苫小牧(とまこまい)両市がトップ、政治・教育文化都市といわれる札幌市がこれに続き、他都市を大きく引き離している。これに1970年ごろから企業誘致により本州企業の進出の著しい千歳、恵庭(えにわ)両市などが加わり、1964年指定の道央新産業都市を形成、工業拠点の全国的拡散を目ざした新産都市中でも成功例といわれ、本道工業地域の核心となっている。しかし経済の低成長期に入って苫小牧東部大規模工業基地の開発停滞など問題も多い。

［柏村一郎］

開発

第二次世界大戦後の北海道は人口吸収、未開発資源活用のホープとされ、緊急開拓入植が行われたが不成功に終わった。そこで本格的に開発に取り組むため、全国に先駆けて北海道開発法が1950年に制定され、中央に北海道開発庁（現、国土交通省北海道局）、その執行機関として札幌市に北海道開発局を設け、総合開発が始まった。これまでに第1期（1952～1962）、第2期（1963～1970）、第3期（1971～1977）、第4期（1978～1987）、第5期（1988～1997）、第6期（1998～2007）の各総合開発計画が行われ、第7期総合開発計画（2008～2017）に至る。その第1期は資源開発中心（十勝川水域電源開発、苫小牧(とまこまい)人工港、根釧(こんせん)パイロットファーム、新篠津(しんしのつ)泥炭地開発）で未開地への進出、第2期は工業開発中心（札幌ほか拠点都市育成）で人口の都市集中をもたらした。第3期は大型プロジェクト（道北・道東の大型酪農村、苫小牧東部工業地）に特徴があったが、1973年の石油ショックに遭遇して挫折(ざせつ)した。次いで第4期と第5期では低成長経済に転じ、従来なおざりにされた生活環境整備など社会資本の充実、民間活力の導入助長を行う地味なものになる。この間に石狩湾新港、新千歳空港など交通整備が進められたが、水害防止を目ざした千歳川放水路は自然環境との調整などで停滞する。

［柏村一郎］

交通

北海道の交通は明治以来、道都札幌と首都東京を結ぶルートを基幹とした。鉄道は、最初石狩炭田の石炭搬出を目的とし、開拓の進展につれて内陸に延び、交通の主役を担ってきた。その間に開発や軍事的考慮が優先し国営となった。しかし、採算性重視のため、戦後のとくに1987年の国鉄民営化前後、羽幌(はぼろ)線、湧網(ゆうもう)線、胆振(いぶり)線など多くの赤字ローカル線が廃止された。幹線は函館、宗谷、根室、石北(せきほく)の各本線に室蘭本線が加わるが、北海道は南北東端がかつての軍都旭川に結ばれる形になっていた。第二次世界大戦後、特急の走る幹線は札幌中心に変わった。札幌―苫小牧(とまこまい)間の千歳(ちとせ)線の買収、千歳線南千歳駅と根室本線新得(しんとく)間の石勝(せきしょう)線開通により、札幌―函館間と札幌―釧路間はこれらの路線経由が主ルートとなり、旭川経由の石北本線が加わる。1988年青函トンネルが開通、本州と鉄道で連絡した。電化区間は札幌中心に小樽(おたる)―旭川間、札幌―室蘭間などである。国道は明治初年の札幌―室蘭、森―函館間の札幌本道開削に始まる。第二次世界大戦後は自動車交通の発達で主役となり、札幌中心に苫小牧・室蘭への国道36号、小樽経由函館への5号、旭川への12号が中軸である。高速道路も札樽(さっそん)自動車道（札幌―小樽間）が完成し、これと結んで道央自動車道は（士別剣淵―札幌―大沼公園間）が完成、道央自動車道の千歳恵庭ジャンクションで分岐する道東自動車道は、北見線が足寄インターチェンジまで、釧路線が阿寒インターチェンジまで（2018年）整備されている。航空路は新千歳空港が札幌の入口となり、東京と結ぶほか全国の主要路線を形成する。このほかに丘珠空港も併せて道内主要都市の空港とも連絡する。また旭川、釧路、帯広、女満別(めまんべつ)（大空町）、函館、稚内(わっかない)、紋別(もんべつ)、根室中標津(なかしべつ)の各空港も東京、名古屋などと直行便で結ばれる。函館と青森を結ぶ青函連絡船は本道の海上航路のなかでも主要交通機関だったが、青函トンネルの完成で70年の歴史を閉じた。2016年（平成28）3月に北海道新幹線の新青森・新函館北斗間が開業、木古内駅が設けられた。2031年には札幌までの延長が予定されている。なお、苫小牧、小樽が本州とフェリーで結ばれ、離島航路が国の補助で運航されている。

［柏村一郎］

社会・文化

教育文化

国による学校教育は、北海道開拓を反映して札幌と函館に始まる。学制制定の前年1871年（明治4）開拓使役人の子弟のため小学校の前身にあたる札幌の資生館と函館学校が開かれた。高等教育機関では1876年開拓指導者養成の札幌農学校、1880年教員養成の函館師範学校、2年後に札幌師範学校ができ、いまの北海道大学と北海道教育大学に発展した。2017年（平成29）現在、このほか国立大学では小樽商科大、室蘭工業大、帯広畜産大、北見工業大、旭川医科大、それに道立札幌医科大、釧路公立大、公立はこだて未来大、札幌市立大、名寄市立大、同短期大がある。私立大学は明治・大正に始まる中等学校を母胎に、第二次世界大戦後形成された北海学園大（札幌市）、藤(ふじ)女子大（同市）をはじめ28大学、短期大学は15ある。札幌には4国公立大学（短期大学含む）、21の私立大学・短期大学が集中して北海道の学都となっている。ほかに国立工業高専が函館、旭川、釧路、苫小牧の4市に分散する。

　新聞は1878年『函館新聞』が発刊され、2年後に『札幌新聞』が続き、以後各主要地に地方紙が興亡した。現在は第二次世界大戦時に地方新聞が統合した『北海道新聞』が代表格で、札幌本社のほか、函館、旭川、釧路の支社で発行し、全道新聞発行部数の約216万部の半分以上を占める（2006）。ついで1949年発刊の『北海タイムス』があったが、1998年廃刊した。戦後は全国紙の朝日、毎日、読売各新聞も進出、札幌に支社を設けて発刊している。ラジオ、テレビではNHKが札幌をはじめ主要都市に放送局を置き、全道をカバーするほか、北海道放送（HBC）、札幌テレビ放送（STV）、北海道テレビ放送（HTB）、北海道文化放送（UHB）、テレビ北海道（TVh）、FM北海道などがある。いずれも札幌に本社を置き、放送事業でも札幌は他都市の追随を許さない。文化施設は北海道博物館、道立図書館、道立近代美術館など札幌中心に多いが、函館にも古文献に富む市立函館図書館、考古民族資料に富む市立函館博物館など注目すべきものがある。

［柏村一郎］

生活文化

北海道は先住のアイヌ民族の世界に本州から和人が移住して、明治以後は積極的に同化政策がとられた。その結果アイヌ民俗文化の減衰は避けられず、各地博物館やいくつかの民族行事、民族舞踊に過去をしのぶ程度であった。しかし最近、少数民族の復権の世界的傾向を反映してアイヌへの法的改善が進められ、従来の「北海道旧土人保護法」（1899）を廃止、「アイヌ文化の振興並びにアイヌの伝統等に関する知識の普及及び啓発に関する法律」（1997）を制定、その伝統文化の振興普及が講ぜられることとなった。日常語に残るアイヌ語は豊富で、魚類のオショロコマ、チップ、シシャモ、シャケ、海獣のトド、トッカリ（アザラシ）、草の実のハスカップ、ベカンベ（ヒシの実）、そのほかマキリ（小刀）、ルイベ（凍らせた魚）などがあげられる。また地名にはアイヌ語を起源とするものが圧倒的に多い。道内35市のうち札幌をはじめ80％近い市が該当し、山岳河川名の大半がそうである。漢字で表現され和名と思われるものもアイヌ語の意訳であることが多く、狩猟漁労民として自然と接したアイヌが、土地の特徴を適切に表現する民族的叡智を示した結果であろう。近年はアイヌ語についての意識が高まりつつあり、アイヌ語関連学習教材の出版が増えてきている。また寒冷積雪地への対応から、住宅は縁側や雨戸など開放的な構造は用いられず、壁と柱を一体にしたいわゆる枠組工法によるものが多くなってきている。また窓など開口部は二重式がほとんどである。歴史が新しいため民俗芸能や行事は少ない。それでも道南には松前神楽(かぐら)、江差沖揚(えさしおきあげ)音頭、江差追分(おいわけ)など古い芸能が集中する。一方、古くからのアイヌ芸能行事の復興が熱心に進められ、鶴(つる)の舞など「阿寒のアイヌ古式舞踊」（国の重要無形民俗文化財）やムックリなどアイヌ楽器の保存伝承、また日高振興局管内の平取(びらとり)町二風谷(にぶたに)アイヌ文化博物館の古い風習の保存活動などが、道央から道東にかけてみられる。熊(くま)の木彫など本来アイヌの授産活動が大衆化とともに変形したものもある。国や北海道の指定文化財は329件ある（2017）。国指定では阿寒湖のマリモ、昭和新山などの特別天然記念物6件を含めて天然記念物は47件でもっとも多く、北海道の特性が現れている。史跡は特別史跡の函館市の五稜郭(ごりょうかく)をはじめ各藩陣屋跡など幕末の北辺防衛施設、アイヌのチャシ（砦(とりで)）や和人の館(たて)跡などアイヌと和人の抗争を物語る北海道独自のものが多い。重要文化財には明治期の西洋文明を取り入れた洋風建物がよく知られ、札幌を象徴する時計台（旧札幌農学校演武場）や通称「赤れんが」の旧北海道庁本庁舎、札幌の豊平館(ほうへいかん)や旧函館区公会堂など、開国とともに西洋文化の影響を受けて開けてきた北海道を表すものに特色がある。なお、アイヌ民族については「アイヌ」の項を参照されたい。

［柏村一郎］

民話

日本の北方には、歴史的に蝦夷、毛人、えみし、えぞなどとよばれた人々がいた。そうしたなかで、北海道における民話の特色は、先住民族であるアイヌの伝承に認めることができる。現在もなおその伝承者は生存する。

　アイヌの伝承は、『ユーカラ』『サコルペ』『ハウキ』などの長編叙事詩に代表される。それらでは、主人公を英雄神や動植物の姿をもつ自然神として語られる。そこで特筆されるのは、これらの物語はいずれも主人公の自伝形式をもって語られる点にある。第一人称発想である。内容は、多く恋と戦いと信仰を主題にしているが、それはいずれも祭りや儀式に直結し、きわめて神聖なものとして処遇されている。同時にまた子供たちの教育や扶育に役だつ働きも与えられている。こうした口語りの物語に通じるのが、教養の第一義とされてきた。これは、文字をもたない民族にあって、民話が人間生活にいかに深くかかわってきたかをよく示す例である。

　一方、北海道には本土から伝えられた民話も多い。この地は早くから憧憬(しょうけい)と神秘観の対象であった。人々のそうした心意を反映して、鎌倉時代にはすでに『御曹司島わたり(おんぞうししまわたり)』が成立した。民衆の間に人気のあった源義経(よしつね)が、蝦夷の地へ渡って神オキクルミとして祀(まつ)られたとする伝承もある。

　また、北海道南部の海岸部には、江差の繁次郎(しげじろう)を主人公とする笑話が伝えられている。ニシンの漁場として栄えた江差には、ニシン漁の季節労働者のヤン衆(しゅ)が各地から集まってきた。繁次郎話は、そうした人々のなかで生まれた狡猾(こうかつ)で愛すべき男の笑話である。繁次郎話は東北海岸一帯にも分布し、ニシン場を行き交った人々と民話の関係を如実に示している。

　なお、第二次世界大戦後樺太(からふと)（サハリン）から移住したウイルタ人の民話も語られ、「テールク」「サフリ」などの古式ゆかしい民話を誇る老齢者も現存する。

［野村純一］

『『新北海道史』全9巻（1969～1981・北海道）』▽『海保嶺夫『日本北方史の論理』（1974・雄山閣）』▽『高倉新一郎・関秀志著『北海道の風土と歴史』（1977・山川出版社）』▽『榎本守恵著『北海道の歴史』（1981・北海道新聞社）』▽『『北海道大百科事典』上下（1981・北海道新聞社）』▽『榎森進著『北海道近世史の研究』（1982・北海道出版企画センター）』▽『桑原真人著『近代北海道史研究序説』（1982・北海道大学図書刊行会）』▽『八木健三・辻井遼一編『北海道――自然と人』（1986・築地書館）』▽『『角川日本地名大辞典　北海道』全2巻（1987・角川書店）』▽『桑原真人編『開拓のかげに――北海道の人びとⅠ』（1987・三省堂）』

[参照項目] | アイヌ | アサヒヒョウモン | 江差追分 | 蝦夷地 | 榎本武揚 | オホーツク文化 | 黒田清隆 | ケプロン | コシャマインの戦い | 五稜郭 | 擦文土器文化 | シャクシャインの戦い | 囚人労働 | 青函トンネル | 続縄文文化 | ダイセツタカネヒカゲ | 屯田兵 | 箱館戦争 | 場所請負制 | 北海道開拓 | 北海道農法 | 松浦武四郎 | 松前藩 | マリモ[補完資料] | 北海道の要覧
北海道章
©北海道">

北海道章

北海道位置図
©Shogakukan　作図／小学館クリエイティブ">

北海道位置図

北海道地勢図
©Shogakukan　作図／小学館クリエイティブ">

北海道地勢図

府県から北海道への来住者戸数
県庁発足の1886年（明治19）～1922年（大正11）©Shogakukan">

府県から北海道への来住者戸数

大雪山
北海道のほぼ中央に位置する火山群。旭岳（写真右側）をはじめ、2000m級の山々が連なる。写真は旭川市にある就実の丘からの眺望。日本最大の山岳自然公園である大雪山国立公園に含まれる。国指定特別天然記念物　北海道上川郡美瑛町・上川町・東川町・新得町©旭川市経済観光部観光課">

大雪山

襟裳岬
日高山脈の最南端に位置する、太平洋に突き出した岬。日高山脈襟裳国定公園に含まれる。周辺にはキャンプ場などの施設も多く、夏季には観光客でにぎわう。突端の断崖から沖合いに数キロメートル続く岩礁（写真）はゼニガタアザラシの生息地として有名である。北海道幌泉郡えりも町©Fam. Kanagawa">

襟裳岬

雄阿寒岳
阿寒カルデラ生成後に噴出した成層火山（1370m）。阿寒摩周国立公園に含まれる。山麓には阿寒湖をはじめ、パンケトーなどの湖がある。写真は東側の阿寒横断道路最高地点にある双岳台からの眺望。左後方には雌阿寒岳が見える。北海道釧路市©阿寒観光協会">

雄阿寒岳

十勝岳
北海道の中央部を北東―南西に走る十勝火山列の主峰（標高2077m）。写真は、十勝岳温泉付近からみた西側山腹の安政火口。一帯は大雪山国立公園に含まれ、北海道でもっとも早く色づく紅葉の名所として知られる。北海道上川郡美瑛町・新得町・空知郡上富良野町©旭川市経済観光部観光課">

十勝岳

摩周湖
中央火口丘カムイヌプリがカルデラの一部を埋め、その窪地に水がたまって形成された湖。透明度の高いことと霧の発生の多いことで知られる。湖の中央付近にはカムイシュ島（弁天島）がある。阿寒摩周国立公園域。北海道川上郡弟子屈町©Fam. Kanagawa">

摩周湖

屈斜路湖
湖の西岸にある美幌峠より湖中の二重式火山中島を望む。屈斜路カルデラは阿蘇カルデラと並び世界でも有数の規模をもつが、屈斜路湖はその西半部を占める。阿寒摩周国立公園を代表する景勝地の一つ。北海道川上郡弟子屈町©Shogakukan">

屈斜路湖

阿寒湖
雄阿寒岳の火山活動によって形成された湖。特別天然記念物マリモの生息地として知られる。阿寒摩周国立公園に含まれ、2005年（平成17）にラムサール条約登録湿地となった。写真は阿寒湖南西にある白湯山展望台からの眺望。北海道釧路市©阿寒観光協会">

阿寒湖

知床岬
北海道東端、オホーツク海と根室海峡とを分ける知床半島先端の知床岬付近。高低2段からなる海岸段丘がよくわかる。半島北半部は知床国立公園に指定されている。水平線上に見えるのは国後島。世界自然遺産「知床」の一部（2005年登録）　北海道斜里郡斜里町・目梨郡羅臼町©知床斜里町観光協会">

知床岬

旭岳
大雪山火山群の主峰で、北海道の最高峰（2291m）。西側の大爆発火口ではいまでも噴煙があがる。写真手前は姿見の池。山麓からロープウェーが通じている。大雪山国立公園の一部。北海道上川郡東川町©旭川市経済観光部観光課">

旭岳

サロマ湖
北海道北東部にある潟湖。日本で3番目に大きな湖（面積151.8km）である。延長30kmの砂嘴によってオホーツク海と隔てられるが、中央の開口部（潮口）から海水が流入する汽水湖のため、ホタテガイ、カキ、ホッカイシマエビ、ウニなどの養殖が行われている。網走国定公園に含まれる。北海道北見市・紋別郡湧別町・常呂郡佐呂間町©北見市">

サロマ湖

南暑寒岳と暑寒別岳
雨竜沼湿原からの眺望。写真奥左側が南暑寒岳（標高1296m）、右が暑寒別岳（1491m）で、ともに増毛山地の一部を構成する。暑寒別天売焼尻国定公園に含まれる。北海道雨竜郡雨竜町・北竜町・樺戸郡新十津川町・増毛郡増毛町©北海道空知総合振興局">

南暑寒岳と暑寒別岳

駒ヶ岳と大沼
渡島富士ともよばれる駒ヶ岳と、その噴出物によってせき止められてできた大沼。豊かな自然が広がるこの一帯は大沼国定公園に指定されている。周辺にはスキー場やキャンプ場などの施設もあり、一年を通して多くの人が訪れる。北海道亀田郡七飯町・茅部郡鹿部町・森町©函館市　湯の川温泉旅館協同組合　社団法人函館国際観光コンベンション協会">

駒ヶ岳と大沼

羊蹄山
蝦夷富士ともよばれる秀麗な円錐状火山（標高1898m）。東方の尻別岳を雄山というのに対し雌山ともいう。支笏洞爺国立公園の一部をなす。写真はニセコ町付近からの眺望。北海道虻田郡倶知安町・ニセコ町・真狩村・喜茂別町・京極町©北海道後志総合振興局農村振興課">

羊蹄山

洞爺湖
代表的なカルデラ湖の一つ。湖中には中央火口丘の中島が浮かぶ。支笏洞爺国立公園の一中心をなし、年間約100万人の観光客が訪れる。写真は南岸からの眺望で、後方には羊蹄山がそびえる。北海道有珠郡壮瞥町・洞爺湖町©壮瞥町経済環境課商工観光室">

洞爺湖

釧路湿原
北海道東部に広がる日本最大の湿原。釧路平野の約80％を占める。一帯は釧路湿原国立公園に指定され、国指定特別天然記念物のタンチョウをはじめとする多くの野生生物の貴重な生息地となっている。1980年（昭和55）日本で最初のラムサール条約登録湿地となった。北海道釧路市・釧路郡釧路町・川上郡標茶町・阿寒郡鶴居村©ひがし北海道観光事業開発協議会">

釧路湿原

上サロベツ原野
利尻礼文サロベツ国立公園域。北海道天塩郡豊富町©環境省">

上サロベツ原野

恵山
函館市の東、亀田半島の東端に位置する二重式火山。噴気活動が盛んな活火山である。山名は、「火を噴き溶岩が流れ落ちる」という意味のアイヌ語「イエサン」に由来する。写真は爆裂火口付近。北海道函館市©函館市　湯の川温泉旅館協同組合　社団法人函館国際観光コンベンション協会">

恵山

野幌森林公園
北海道開拓100年を記念して設置された道立の自然公園。公園の大部分を国有林が占め、遊歩道を使って自然を楽しむことができる。写真は1970年（昭和45）に完成した北海道百年記念塔（高さ100m）。北海道札幌市・江別市・北広島市©札幌市観光文化局">

野幌森林公園

札幌農学校
北海道札幌区（現在の札幌市）『日本之名勝』（1900年〈明治33〉）国立国会図書館所蔵">

札幌農学校

幌内炭山（明治時代）
北海道空知郡幌内村（現在の三笠市）。『日本之名勝』（1900年〈明治33〉）国立国会図書館所蔵">

幌内炭山（明治時代）

二風谷アイヌ文化博物館
アイヌの伝統文化を紹介する博物館。1992年（平成4）開館。アイヌ民族の衣類や狩猟用具、儀礼用具など約4000点の民具資料を収蔵し、その一部は国の重要有形民俗文化財の指定を受けている。屋外にはチセとよばれる伝統家屋や倉などが展示されている。北海道沙流郡平取町©平取町">

二風谷アイヌ文化博物館

昭和新山
洞爺湖南岸にある有珠山の寄生火山（標高398m）。1944年（昭和19）から壮瞥町内の畑地が隆起し始め、爆発を繰り返しながら溶岩円頂丘を形成した。麓には新火山の生成過程を克明に記録し続けた三松正夫の像が建つ。支笏洞爺国立公園の一部。国指定特別天然記念物　北海道有珠郡壮瞥町©壮瞥町経済環境課商工観光室">

昭和新山

五稜郭
正式名は亀田役所土塁。五稜星形築城で、1857年（安政4）着工、64年（元治1）竣工。現在は公園となっており、サクラの名所としても知られている。国指定特別史跡　北海道函館市©NetAdvance">

五稜郭

上之国勝山館跡
日本海を見下ろす丘陵上にある城跡。勝山館は15世紀後半に築造された武田氏・蠣崎氏（のち松前氏）の居城で、上之国脇館、上ノ国館、勝山城などともよばれた。近年の調査により、陶磁器や金属製品など10万点を超える出土品が発掘され、多数の建造物の跡も確認された。国指定史跡　北海道檜山郡上ノ国町©北海道檜山振興局商工労働観光課">

上之国勝山館跡

白老仙台藩陣屋跡
1855年（安政2）に江戸幕府の命で蝦夷地の警備にあたった仙台藩の元陣屋の跡。常時100人以上の藩士が駐屯していたという。写真は本陣や勘定所などがあった内曲輪の跡で、堀と土塁に囲まれていた当時のようすがうかがえる。国指定史跡　北海道白老郡白老町©一般社団法人白老観光協会">

白老仙台藩陣屋跡

札幌時計台
旧札幌農学校（北海道大学の前身）の演武場。塔上に取り付けられた時計と自鳴鐘は札幌のシンボルである。建物内部は札幌歴史館として農学校の資料などが展示されている。北海道札幌市©札幌市観光文化局">

札幌時計台

北海道庁旧本庁舎
北海道開拓の根拠地、道の中枢としての役割を果たした建物。1888年（明治21）に建築された、日本の明治期を代表する建築物である。アメリカ風ネオ・バロック様式のれんが造で、現在も「赤れんが」の愛称で親しまれている。1968年（昭和43）、「北海道百年」を記念して創建当時の姿に復原。内部は、北海道に関する古文書などを収蔵する北海道立文書館となっている。国指定重要文化財　北海道札幌市©藤野優哉">

北海道庁旧本庁舎

豊平館
1880年（明治13）に開拓使によってつくられた迎賓館。木造2階建てで、北海道における明治時代の洋風建築を代表する建物の一つである。1958年（昭和33）の市民会館建設に伴い、現在地（中島公園）に移築された。現在は市営総合結婚式場として利用されている。国指定重要文化財　北海道札幌市©札幌市観光文化局">

豊平館

旧函館区公会堂
1907年（明治40）の大火で焼失した町会所に代わる施設として建てられた函館区（現函館市）の公会堂。1910年完成。木造2階建ての本館（写真）は正面にバルコニーがある擬洋風建築物で、明治期の公会堂建築の数少ない遺構の一つである。国指定重要文化財　北海道函館市©函館市　湯の川温泉旅館協同組合　社団法人函館国際観光コンベンション協会">

旧函館区公会堂

箱館戦争
戊辰戦争最後の戦い、箱館戦争の図。蝦夷松前での戦闘を描いたもので、馬上の人物は幕府軍の板倉勝静、後方の城は福山城。歌川芳虎画『時明治元戊辰ノ夏旧幕ノ勇臣等東台ノ戦争破レ奥州ヘ脱走ナシ夫ヨリ函館ヘ押渡再松前城ニ於テ合戦ノ図』　三枚続国立国会図書館所蔵">

箱館戦争


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