This refers to water for drinking, and in Japan, more than 90% of the population uses tap water, but the rest uses well water, river water, rainwater, etc. Desalinated water and mineral water are also sometimes used. [Sadao Kojima] historyHumans originally lived near springs, rivers, and lakes, from which they obtained the water they needed for their lives. Eventually, the development of well-digging technology made it possible to use groundwater, allowing people to live away from water, greatly expanding the scope of their living space. However, as cities were built and large numbers of people gathered, the groundwater no longer met the demand, and the water quality became unsafe. This led to the need to secure water by channeling good quality spring water or river water from far away. The famous aqueducts of ancient Rome, as well as the Kanda and Tamagawa aqueducts of Edo, were all created in this way. However, as these water sources eventually became polluted, purification treatment became necessary, and this is where the first modern waterworks were born. [Sadao Kojima] Required amountThe human body is 65% water, and losing 10% of that will cause physiological disorders, and losing 20% will cause death from thirst. The daily requirement is said to be 2 to 2.5 liters, but about 1.5 liters of that is taken in with food, so the amount needed for drinking is 0.5 to 1.0 liter. [Sadao Kojima] Drinking Water RequirementsDrinking water must be visually clean, taste good to drink, and be hygienically safe. Of these, the most important condition is hygienically safe, but no matter how safe the water is, if it is cloudy or has an unpleasant odor, it is not suitable for drinking. Water quality standards scientifically stipulate the above conditions, and for tap water there is the "Water Quality Standards Based on the Water Supply Act" (Ministry of Health and Welfare Ordinance No. 69 of 1992) established by the Ministry of Health and Welfare (currently the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare), which applies to facilities that supply water to 100 or more people. For other types of drinking water there is the "Drinking Water Evaluation Standards." The two are almost the same, and the gist of them is as follows: (1) There is no detection of coliform bacteria, which is a sign of fecal contamination. (2) It does not contain toxic substances such as cyanide, mercury, or organophosphates. (3) The total amount of nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, which are indicators of pollution, is less than 10 milligrams per liter, potassium permanganate consumption is less than 10 milligrams per liter, and the general bacterial count is less than 100 per milliliter. (4) Large amounts of lead (0.1), hexavalent chromium (0.05), arsenic (0.05), fluorine (0.8), cadmium (0.01), etc., which are hygienic and harmful, must be below the amounts shown in parentheses (milligrams per liter). (5) Constituents harmful to water use, such as iron and manganese (both 0.3), which stain laundry and utensils, phenols (0.005), which cause odors, anionic surfactants (0.5), which cause foaming, and hardness (300), which wastes soap and leaves it with a bad taste, are below the amounts in parentheses (milligrams per liter). (6) It must be free of unpleasant odor or taste, and colorless and transparent (turbidity of 2 degrees or less, color of 5 degrees or less). Whether drinking water meets these standards cannot be known without water quality testing, but tap water can be tested by the Waterworks Bureau or Department, while well water can be tested by the public health center or hygiene research institute. [Sadao Kojima] Water purification methodPure groundwater is suitable for drinking as is, but groundwater that contains iron or manganese or is contaminated, as well as all surface water, requires treatment. The water purification method is Filtration tanks have long been used as household water purification devices, but these use a type of slow filtration method that is suitable for removing iron and turbidity from groundwater. Recently, portable water purifiers have been developed to purify pool and pond water to produce drinking water in the event of a disaster. The principle is that the water is filtered through an activated carbon layer and then disinfected with chlorine, which is a chemical purification method. [Sadao Kojima] Taste of WaterThe taste of water varies not only with its quality, but also with the physiological condition of the person drinking it and the weather conditions at the time. The conditions for delicious water are (1) that it contains an appropriate amount of minerals and carbon dioxide, (2) that its temperature is between 10 and 15 degrees Celsius, and (3) that it does not contain substances that give unpleasant odors and tastes, such as chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, and phenol. That is, with the right amount of minerals (mainly calcium) (100-200 milligrams per liter), water will have a mild, mellow taste, but too much will make the taste dull, and even more will make it salty, astringent, or bitter. Conversely, if there is too little, the taste will be dull and weak. Pure water or distilled water, which contains absolutely no minerals, is not only tasteless and bland, but is also physiologically harmful. Carbon dioxide also stimulates the mucous membranes of the mouth, giving a refreshing, fresh taste, and if there is not enough of it, the water will taste flat, like cooled boiled water. Meanwhile, water temperature also affects its taste. Most water tastes good when drunk chilled, but if it is too chilled, it loses its flavor. As for physiological conditions, (1) food tastes good when you are thirsty, but tastes worse when you wake up or when you are full. (2) food tastes bad when it is humid, but tastes good when it is dry. (3) food tastes bad when you are very excited. Specifically, what kind of water tastes good? First and foremost is spring water or groundwater, and among groundwater, shallow well water generally tastes better. These waters contain the right amount of minerals and carbon dioxide, and are low in temperature, so they meet all the conditions for being delicious. Tap water also tastes good if it is sourced from a spring or groundwater source, or if it is clear stream water that has been purified using slow filtration. To make tap water taste good, you can either put it in the refrigerator to cool it, or use activated carbon to remove the residual chlorine. [Sadao Kojima] Water hardnessHardness refers to calcium and magnesium dissolved in water, and is expressed differently in different countries. For example, in Japan and the United States, it is converted to calcium carbonate and expressed in milligrams per liter, while in Germany, it is converted to calcium oxide and 1 degree is defined as 10 milligrams per liter. Water with low hardness is called soft water and water with high hardness is called hard water, but the boundary between them is not necessarily fixed. Generally, water with a German hardness of 10 degrees or less is called soft water, and water with a German hardness of 20 degrees or more is called hard water. Hardness components not only consume soap during washing, but also produce insoluble metal soaps that stick to fibers and damage the fabric. Hard water is also unsuitable for cooking, and it is a heavy burden on the production of ultra-pure water required for ultra-high pressure boilers and the electronics industry. [Sadao Kojima] Drinking Water and HealthWater is essential for people every day, and it is also closely related to health. The first is when water acts as a transmission medium for pathogenic microorganisms, and infectious diseases of the digestive system, such as dysentery, typhoid, cholera, and amoeba dysentery, as well as schistosomes and hepatitis viruses, are transmitted through water. The second is when toxic or harmful substances are contained in drinking water, and examples include lead poisoning from drinking groundwater contaminated with tetraethyl lead, encephalitis caused by manganese, hemoglobinemia in infants caused by nitrate nitrogen, and mottled teeth caused by fluoride. The third is the effect of water quality caused by long-term drinking. For example, research has shown that people in areas where hard water is consumed have fewer strokes and heart diseases than people in areas where soft water is consumed. [Sadao Kojima] Foreign drinking waterWestern water generally has a higher hardness than Japanese water, with 200-300 milligrams per liter compared to 40-80 milligrams per liter in Japan. Not only does it have a hard and heavy taste, but Japanese travelers who are used to soft water often get diarrhea when they drink it. Due to the long history of suffering from bad water and epidemics, Westerners do not drink raw water very often, and have the habit of getting fluids as tea or coffee (boiling not only sterilizes it but also reduces the hardness by about half), and mineral water (such as Evian water) in bottles is commercially available as drinking water. On the other hand, the water in Southeast Asian countries is soft, but many of them are not suitable for drinking because they are not completely disinfected. In China, groundwater is called "ku shoy" (bitter water) because it has a high hardness and a bitter and astringent taste, and river water with low hardness is called "tian shoy" (sweet water). In the past, people could be seen selling sweet water for drinking. In these countries, too, the custom of always boiling water before drinking it and never drinking untreated water is probably a wisdom gained from suffering from bad water and epidemics. [Sadao Kojima] "Drinking Water" by Isamu Horazawa (1955, Kanehara Publishing)" ▽ "Health Check of Water" by Jun Kobayashi (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "New Common Sense on Water Quality" by Sadao Kojima et al. (1981, Japan Water Newspaper) " ▽ "Drinking Water and Food Water" by Makoto Nagasawa (1972, Koseisha Kouseikaku) [Reference items] | | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
飲料に供する水のことで、日本では人口の90%以上が水道水を使用しているが、ほかは井戸水、河川水、天水などを用いている。また海水を淡水化した水やミネラルウォーターが用いられることもある。 [小島貞男] 歴史人類は初め湧泉(ゆうせん)や河川・湖沼などのほとりに住んで、ここから生活に必要な水を得ていた。やがて井戸掘り技術が生まれて、地下水の利用が可能となると、水辺から離れて生活ができるようになり、大いに生活圏が広がった。しかし都市ができて大ぜいの人が集まると、地下水では量的にもまにあわなくなってくるし、水質的にも危険となる。そこで良質の湧水や河川水を遠方から導いて、水を確保する必要が生じる。有名な古代ローマの水道も、江戸の神田(かんだ)上水や玉川上水も、このような経過をたどってつくられたものである。しかし、このような水源もやがて汚濁が進行すると浄化処理が必要となり、ここに初めて近代式水道が誕生した。 [小島貞男] 必要量人体の65%は水分で、その10%を失えば生理障害をおこし、20%の水を失えば渇死する。1日の必要量は2~2.5リットルといわれているが、そのうち1.5リットルぐらいは食物とともにとられるので、飲料水として必要な量は0.5~1.0リットルである。 [小島貞男] 飲料水の必要条件飲料水は目で見てきれいで、飲んでおいしく、しかも衛生的に安全でなければならない。このうちもっともだいじな条件は衛生的に安全なことであるが、しかしいくら安全な水でも、濁っていたり、いやなにおいがしたりするのでは飲料水として落第である。 前記の条件を科学的に規定したのが水質基準で、水道水に対しては厚生省(現厚生労働省)で定めた「水道法にもとづく水質基準」(平成4年厚生省令第69号)があり、100人以上の人に供給される施設にはこれが適用される。その他の飲料水には、「飲料水の判定標準」がある。両者はほぼ同じで、その大要を説明すると次のとおりである。 (1)糞便(ふんべん)汚染のしるしである大腸菌群が検出されないこと。 (2)シアン、水銀、有機リンなどの毒物を含まないこと。 (3)汚濁の指標である硝酸性および亜硝酸性窒素が合計1リットル当り10ミリグラム以下、過マンガン酸カリウム消費量が1リットル当り10ミリグラム以下、一般細菌数は1ミリリットル当り100以下であること。 (4)量が多いと衛生的に有害な鉛(0.1)、六価クロム(0.05)、ヒ素(0.05)、フッ素(0.8)、カドミウム(0.01)などが括弧(かっこ)内の量(1リットル当りミリグラム)以下であること。 (5)水利用上有害な成分、たとえば洗濯物や器物を汚す鉄、マンガン(ともに0.3)、臭気の原因となるフェノール類(0.005)、泡立ちをおこす陰イオン界面活性剤(0.5)、せっけんをむだに消費し味を悪くする硬度(300)などが括弧内の量(1リットル当りミリグラム)以下であること。 (6)いやな臭気や味がなく無色透明(濁度は2度、色度は5度以下)であること。 飲料水がこれらの基準に適合しているかどうかは、水質検査を行わなければわからないが、水道水なら水道局(部)に、井戸水の場合は保健所や衛生研究所で調べてもらうことができる。 [小島貞男] 浄水方法純良な地下水はそのままでも飲料水となるが、鉄やマンガンを含んだり、汚染された地下水、およびすべての地表水は、浄水処理が絶対必要である。 浄水方法には、 家庭用の浄水装置としては昔から濾過槽が用いられているが、これは緩速濾過法の一種で、地下水中の鉄分や濁りを除去するのに適している。最近では災害時にプールや池沼の水を浄化して飲料水をつくることを目的とした携帯型の浄水器がつくられている。原理は、活性炭層で濾過したのち塩素で消毒するもので、いわば薬品浄化法である。 [小島貞男] 水の味水の味は水質によって異なるばかりでなく、飲む人の生理的条件や、そのときの気象条件によっても異なる。水がおいしいための水質的条件としては、(1)適度のミネラルと炭酸ガスを含んでいること、(2)温度は10~15℃であること、(3)異臭味を与える物質、たとえば塩素、硫化水素、フェノールなどを含まないこと、などである。 すなわち、ミネラル(おもにカルシウム)が適量(1リットル当り100~200ミリグラム)あると温和円満な味を呈するが、多すぎると鈍重な味となり、さらに多くなると鹹味(かんみ)、渋味、苦味などを伴うようになる。反対に少なすぎると、こくのない、頼りない味となる。ことにミネラルをまったく含まない純水や蒸留水では、無味淡泊なだけでなく、生理的にも有害である。また炭酸ガスは口腔(こうこう)粘膜を刺激して爽快(そうかい)味、新鮮味を感じさせ、これが少ないと湯冷ましのような気の抜けた水となる。一方、水温も水の味を左右する。冷やして飲めばたいていの水はおいしく感じるが、冷やしすぎると味がなくなる。 次に生理的条件としては、(1)のどが渇いたときはおいしく、起床時や満腹時には味が落ちる。(2)湿度の高いときにはまずく、乾燥しているときにはおいしい。(3)ひどく興奮しているときには味がわからなくなる。 具体的にどんな水がおいしいかというと、第一は湧水や地下水で、地下水のなかでは浅井戸のほうが一般に味がよい。これらの水は適量のミネラルと炭酸ガスとを含み、水温も低いので美味の条件にかなっている。水道水も湧水や地下水を水源としたものや、清流の水を緩速濾過法によって浄化したものは味がよい。水道水をおいしく飲むには、冷蔵庫に入れて冷やすか、活性炭などで残留塩素を除くことである。 [小島貞男] 水の硬度硬度とは、水中に溶けているカルシウム、マグネシウムのことで、国によって表し方が異なる。たとえば日本やアメリカでは炭酸カルシウムに換算し、その1リットル当りミリグラムで表すが、ドイツでは酸化カルシウムに換算し、その1リットル当り10ミリグラムを含む場合を1度としている。硬度の低い水を軟水、硬度の高い水を硬水とよぶが、その境界値はかならずしも一定でない。一般にドイツ硬度10度以下を軟水、20度以上を硬水とよぶことが多い。硬度成分は洗濯の際、せっけんを消費するばかりでなく、難溶性の金属せっけんを生成し、これが繊維に粘着するので生地を傷める。また硬度の高い水は料理に不向きであり、超高圧ボイラーや電子工業などに必要な超純水の製造にも大きな負担となる。 [小島貞男] 飲料水と健康水は人にとって毎日欠かせないものだけに、健康にとっても関係が深い。第一は、水が病原性微生物の伝播(でんぱ)役を果たす場合で、赤痢、腸チフス、コレラ、赤痢アメーバなどの消化器系伝染病をはじめ、住血吸虫や肝炎ウイルスなどが水を介して感染する。第二は、飲料水中に有毒・有害物質が含まれている場合で、たとえば四エチル鉛で汚染された地下水を飲んで鉛中毒をおこした例、マンガンによる脳炎、硝酸性窒素による乳幼児のヘモグロビン血症、フッ素による斑状(はんじょう)歯などがあげられる。そして第三は、長期間飲用による水質の影響である。たとえば、硬水飲用地域の人は軟水飲用地域の人に比べて、脳卒中や心臓病が少ないという研究がある。 [小島貞男] 外国の飲料水欧米の水は日本の水に比べて硬度が一般に高く、日本の水が1リットル当り40~80ミリグラムであるのに対して、200~300ミリグラムもある。したがって、硬くて鈍重な味がするばかりでなく、軟水に慣れた日本人旅行者はこれを飲むと下痢をおこすことが多い。欧米人は長い間悪水と疫病に悩まされた経験から、あまり生水を飲まず、紅茶やコーヒーとして水分をとる習慣があり(煮沸すると殺菌されるばかりでなく、硬度は約半減する)、飲料水としては瓶やペットボトルに入ったミネラルウォーター(エビアン水など)が市販されている。一方、東南アジア諸国の水は軟水であるが、消毒不完全で飲用に適さないものが少なくない。中国では、地下水は硬度が高く苦味や渋味があるので「苦水(クーショイ)」とよび、硬度の低い河川水を「甜水(ティエンショイ)」と称する。かつて甜水を飲料用に売り歩く風景がみられた。これらの国々でも、水はかならず煮沸して飲み、生水を飲まないのは、悪水や疫病に苦しめられて得た知恵であろう。 [小島貞男] 『洞沢勇著『飲料水』(1955・金原出版)』▽『小林純著『水の健康診断』(岩波新書)』▽『小島貞男他著『新水質の常識』(1981・日本水道新聞社)』▽『永沢信著『飲用水と食品用水』(1972・恒星社厚生閣)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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