Wheat flour - komugi

Japanese: 小麦粉 - こむぎこ

Wheat flour is made by crushing wheat and sieving it to remove the husk, germ and coarse parts, and then crushing it to a certain particle size or smaller. In Japan, there is no definition or standard for wheat flour, but in the United States, it is defined as "a food made by crushing and sieving wheat other than durum (hard wheat mainly used for macaroni and spaghetti), which is a type of flour that passes most of the wheat when sieved through a 210 micrometer (1/1000 of a millimeter) cloth sieve," and coarse flour is called farina or semolina. It has also been called udon flour or Meriken flour.

[Seiichi Nagao]

History of flour milling

Flour was made using stone mills from around 4000 BC, but in Roman times, people began using slaves and livestock to make flour. Improvements were made to the way the stone mills turned, and waterwheel and windmill mills were developed. In the 17th century in France, a staged milling method was developed in which flour ground in a stone mill was sifted to separate the coarse parts, then ground in another stone mill and sifted again, repeating this process several times, and at the end of the 18th century in England, flour mills using steam engines were built. In America, automation progressed, and machines (purifiers) were devised to obtain high-quality flour. Roll mills were put into practical use around 1870, and other improvements to the process made it possible to produce flour in a fully automated, hygienic manner, as seen in today's large flour mills. In Japan, flour mills using roll mills were constructed from the latter half of the Meiji era, but full-scale expansion and improvement of facilities did not occur until after the shift to indirect control (a system in which raw wheat was under government control, but the finished flour could be sold freely) in 1952. As of 2001, there were 147 flour mills in Japan, including some that are among the best in the world.

[Seiichi Nagao]

Production and consumption

Countries where bread is a staple food have a large amount of flour production. In the United States, flour production increased until 2000 as a result of the people being encouraged to eat more bread for nutritional reasons, but has since stopped increasing. In Russia, France, and the United Kingdom, production has remained stable or is declining. China is the largest flour producer, producing 78.75 million tons in 2000, but the growth rate has slowed compared to the early 1990s. In developing countries, the consumption of flour foods continues to increase due to improvements in living standards and urbanization, and the construction of flour mills is also booming, so flour production is on the rise. In Japan, the consumption of flour increased sharply from the end of World War II to the mid-1960s. This is because flour has a wide range of uses and is an essential ingredient for the sophistication, diversification, and simplification of the diet. However, the annual wheat consumption per capita in 2008 was 31.1 kilograms, which has hardly changed since 1975.

[Seiichi Nagao]

Variety and Quality

In Japan, there is no set classification for wheat flour, and it is difficult to classify it numerically. However, it is generally classified into types such as "strong flour", "semi-strong flour", "medium flour (also called ordinary flour)", and "weak flour" and combinations of grades such as "first class flour", "second class flour", "third class flour", and "last flour". In other words, it is called "strong first class flour" and "weak second class flour". The types of flour such as strong flour and weak flour are determined by the quality of the raw wheat, and the protein content of first and second class flours varies from 11.5 to 13% for strong flour, 10.5 to 12.5% for semi-strong flour, 7.5 to 10.5% for medium flour, and 6.5 to 9% for weak flour. There are also differences in the properties of the protein, and the elasticity of the dough kneaded with water is strong for strong flour and weak flour is weak. Grades such as first and second grade flour are created during the milling process, while third and fourth grades of flour are produced from the same wheat at the same time. Higher grade flour has a low ash content and a beautiful color, but the lower the grade, the more ash there is and the duller the color becomes. The ash content is roughly 0.3-0.4% for first grade flour, around 0.5% for second grade flour, around 1.0% for third grade flour, and 2-3% for flour with less ash, but flour can also be classified based on overall quality characteristics regardless of ash content. Classification by use, such as "flour for bread," "flour for noodles," and "flour for confectionery," is also commonly used. Flour milled by a flour mill using only locally grown domestic wheat is sometimes called "local flour."

[Seiichi Nagao]

milling

About 90% of wheat is imported, and about 10% is domestically produced. In accordance with the Law Concerning Stabilization of Supply and Demand and Prices of Staple Foods (Food Law), the government imports wheat in an amount appropriate to demand and sells it to flour mills. In 2000, domestic wheat trading shifted to private distribution, and producers (groups) and flour mills enter into sales contracts and distribute wheat without going through the government. When a wheat transport ship arrives at the factory's wharf, a pipe is inserted, the wheat is sucked up by a vacuum pump, impurities are removed, the wheat is weighed, and then stored in a silo. Domestic wheat is often delivered by truck. In the first screening process, non-wheat materials are removed, the grain surface is polished, and the wheat is left to sit in a tank for 24 to 36 hours with a small amount of water. In the next milling process, the wheat is crushed and sieved in stages using rolls and sieves to ensure that the grain is not overly crushed. A purifier, a machine that removes small pieces of skin mixed in with the flour, is also used to separate the wheat into dozens of different types of flour. These are combined to produce two to four types of flour of the desired quality and grade. The products are placed in tanks and after quality inspection, they are packaged in 500 gram or 1 kilogram bags for home use, and 25 kilogram packages for commercial use, or shipped in bulk on tanker trucks. All flour produced in Japan is unbleached. Vitamins _B1 and _B2 are added to flour for school lunches.

[Seiichi Nagao]

Ingredients and Nutrition

The ingredients vary depending on the type and grade, and are as follows: carbohydrates 67-78%, protein 6-17%, fat 1-3%, minerals less than 1% except for special ones, and moisture 14-15%. Of the carbohydrates, fiber is 0.2-0.3%, the majority of the rest is starch, with a few percent of pentosan, and small amounts of dextrin and water-soluble sugars. Wheat flour starch is round or elliptical, with large flat granules 25-35 micrometers in diameter and small spherical granules 2-8 micrometers in diameter. Starch is the largest source of calories in wheat flour, and is broken down by enzymes (amylase) and acids in the digestive tract to become glucose, which is absorbed by the body, but it is difficult to absorb raw, so it is heated and gelatinized before eating. When the properties of wheat flour paste are examined using an amylograph tester, gelatinization begins at temperatures above 60°C, and viscosity reaches its highest at 85°C or above. The unique texture of udon noodles is largely due to the properties of gelatinized starch. When wheat flour is kneaded with water, the proteins gliadin and glutenin form viscoelastic gluten. Gluten is what makes bread rise and keep its shape even when cooled, and what gives noodles their unique chewy texture. The viscoelasticity of wheat flour dough is largely due to the properties of gluten, which can be examined using a farinograph or extensograph tester. The limiting amino acid in wheat flour (a substance that has a low nutritional value even if it has sufficient other essential amino acids) is lysine, and like other grains, wheat flour has a low amino acid score, but when combined with animal foods rich in lysine, it becomes a nutritious meal. Although the amount is small, wheat flour also contains various vitamins and minerals, making it possible to fortify it.

[Seiichi Nagao]

use

Wheat was produced in Japan in the middle and late Yayoi culture, and was apparently eaten in some form. Noodles were introduced from China in the Asuka period, Chinese sweets in the Nara period, and Nanban sweets in the late 16th century. These were assimilated to suit the Japanese climate and tastes, and became Japanese-style wheat foods. Bread was also introduced around this time, but it was not until the Meiji period that it became popular among the general public. The range of uses for wheat flour expanded from the Meiji period to the Taisho period and the Showa period, and today in Japan, wheat flour is used in more ways than anywhere else in the world. The difference in gluten strength creates a variety of uses. In Japan, wheat flour is most commonly used in bread, and it is the main ingredient in white bread, French bread, sweet bread, and various variety breads (breads made with dried fruits, nuts, grains, etc.). Strong or semi-strong flour is used, and 60 to 70 parts water is added to 100 parts flour, and the mixture is kneaded so that the gluten is fully formed. A large amount of flour is consumed for noodles such as boiled noodles, dried noodles, instant noodles, Chinese noodles, macaroni, and spaghetti. Medium-strength flour is mainly used for udon. In machine-made noodles, 100 parts flour is mixed with 30 to 35 parts water, and the mixture is made into a soybean pulp-like substance in a mixer, after which the flour is rolled out to form gluten. It is also used in a wide range of confectionery products such as cakes, castella cakes, biscuits, cookies, manju, karinto, and donuts. Although soft flour is the norm, medium-strength flour is also used in some cases. It is also used as a raw material for premixes, bread crumbs, baked wheat gluten, and the starch industry, and as an adhesive and feed.

[Seiichi Nagao]

cooking

Tips for making tempura include using weak flour, making the batter in small amounts at a time, adding sifted flour to cold water or cold water with eggs, mixing quickly and lightly (to prevent too much gluten from being released and becoming sticky), preparing plenty of oil, frying at 180°C for fish and 170-175°C for vegetables, and draining the oil immediately after frying. Tips for making cakes include using weak flour, sifting, beating the eggs thoroughly, adding the sugar in 2-3 batches, mixing lightly and cutting into the mixture (do not knead), and baking at 170-180°C over medium or low heat. Household weak flour can be used for the roux, but strong flour is used for bread, pizza, and gyoza wrappers. Wheat flour easily absorbs odors and moisture, so it is best to seal the container tightly after use and sift it before starting to cook.

[Seiichi Nagao]

"Wheat and its Processing," by Nagao Seiichi (1984, Kenpakusha)" ▽ "Nissin Flour Milling Co., Ltd. (eds.), Flour Natural History, Flour Natural History 2 (1985, 1986, Bunka Publishing Bureau)" ▽ "The Cultural History of Flour -- From Millstones to High Technology," by Miwa Shigeo (1987, Shinchosha)" ▽ "The Secret of Flour -- Fun Cooking and Experiments," by Otake Chikako and illustrated by Nagai Yasuko (1991, Saera Shobo)" ▽ "The Latest in Grain Science and Technology," by Pomerantz and translated by Nagao Seiichi (1992, Pannews) " ▽ "Wheat Flour -- Its Raw Materials and Processed Products," revised third edition (1994), edited and published by the Japanese Society for the Study of Wheat and Grain Products " ▽ "A Book on Flour Written by a Miller," by Nagao Seiichi (1994, Sansui-sha)" ▽ "The Science of Wheat," edited by Nagao Seiichi (1995, Asakura Publishing)" ▽ "German, English, Japanese Dictionary of Flour Milling, Baking and Confectionery Terms," edited by Shimizu Hirohiro and supervised by Nagao Seiichi (1997, Flour Milling Promotion Association, Sanshusha Publishing)" ▽ "Bread, Noodles and the Japanese -- A Gift from Wheat," written by Otsuka Shigeru (1997, Shueisha)" ▽ "Let's Look into Our Food 2: Wheat," supervised by Itakura Masanobu (1999, Komine Publishing)" ▽ "Knowledge of Wheat Flour Products," edited by Shibata Shigehisa and Nakae Toshiaki (2000, Saiwai Shobo)" ▽ "The Food System of Wheat Flour Products -- An Approach from the Midstream," edited by Saito Osamu and Kijima Minoru (2003, Agriculture and Forestry Statistics Association)"

Relationship between classification of flour by use and by type
©Shogakukan ">

Relationship between classification of flour by use and by type

Wheat flour manufacturing process
©Shogakukan ">

Wheat flour manufacturing process

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

小麦を粉砕し、ふるい分けによって外皮、胚芽(はいが)および粗い部分を取り除いて、一定粒度以下にしたもの。日本には小麦粉の定義や規格はないが、アメリカでは、「デューラム（おもにマカロニやスパゲッティ用の硬質小麦）以外の小麦を粉砕、ふるい分けしてつくった食品で、210マイクロメートル（1ミリメートルの1000分の1）の布ぶるいでふるって大部分が通過するもの」と定めており、粒度が粗いものはファリナとかセモリナとよんでいる。うどん粉、メリケン粉とよばれていたこともある。

［長尾精一］

製粉の歴史

紀元前4000年ごろから石臼(いしうす)で粉をつくっていたが、ローマ時代には奴隷や家畜を使って製粉を業とする者が現れた。石臼の回し方にくふうが加えられ、水車や風車製粉が発達した。17世紀のフランスで、石臼でひいた粉をふるって粗い部分を分け、別の石臼でひいてふたたびふるうことを何回か繰り返す段階式製粉方式が始まり、18世紀末のイギリスで蒸気機関利用の製粉工場がつくられた。アメリカでは自動化が進み、良質の粉をとるための機械（ピュリファイヤー）が考案された。ロール製粉機は1870年ごろ実用化され、その他の工程の改良も進んで、今日の大型製粉工場にみられるような全自動式で衛生的な小麦粉作りが可能になった。日本でも明治の後半からロールによる製粉工場が建設されたが、本格的な設備の増強や改善は間接統制（原料小麦は政府の統制下にありながら、製品の小麦粉は自由に販売できる制度）への移行（1952）以降である。2001年（平成13）時点で、147の製粉工場があり、世界でもトップレベルの工場がいくつかある。

［長尾精一］

生産と消費

パンを常食としてきた国々では小麦粉生産量が多い。アメリカでは栄養的な見地からパンの摂取増を国民に呼びかけた結果、2000年まで小麦粉の生産量が増加していたが、それ以降は伸びが止まっている。ロシア、フランス、イギリスでは生産量が横ばい、または減少気味である。中国は最大の小麦粉生産国で、2000年には7875万トンつくられたが、1990年代前半までに比べると伸びが鈍化している。開発途上国では生活水準の向上や都市化によって小麦粉食品の消費増が続いており、製粉工場の建設も盛んで、小麦粉生産量は増加傾向にある。日本では第二次世界大戦以降1960年代なかばにかけて小麦粉の消費量が急増した。これは小麦粉の用途が広く、食生活の高度化、多様化、簡便化などに欠かせない素材だったからである。ただし、2008年（平成20）の小麦の国民1人当り年間消費量は31.1キログラムであり、1975年（昭和50）以来ほとんど変化していない。

［長尾精一］

種類と品質

日本には、小麦粉の分類を定めたものはないし、数値などでは分類しにくい。しかし一般的には、「強力(きょうりき)粉」「準強力粉」「中力(ちゅうりき)粉（普通粉ともいう）」「薄力(はくりき)粉」という種類と、「一等粉」「二等粉」「三等粉」「末粉(すえこ)」などの等級の組合せで分類されている。つまり、「強力一等粉」とか「薄力二等粉」とよぶ。強力粉や薄力粉などの種類別は原料小麦の品質によって決まり、一・二等粉クラスのタンパク質量は、強力粉で11.5～13％、準強力粉で10.5～12.5％、中力粉で7.5～10.5％、薄力粉で6.5～9％と差がある。タンパク質の性質にも差があり、水とこねた生地(きじ)の弾力は、強力粉が強く、薄力粉は弱い。一等粉や二等粉のような等級別は製粉工程でつくられ、同じ小麦から同時に三～四等級の小麦粉が出てくる。上位等級の粉は灰分含有量が少なく、色もきれいだが、下位等級になるにしたがい灰分が増え、色もすこしずつくすむ。灰分量の目安は、一等粉0.3～0.4％、二等粉0.5％前後、三等粉1.0％前後、末粉2～3％だが、灰分量によらないで総合的な品質特性で分類することもある。「パン用粉」「麺(めん)用粉」「菓子用粉」のような用途別分類もよく使われる。製粉工場が地元で生産された国内産小麦だけでひいた粉を「地粉(じごな)」とよぶことがある。

［長尾精一］

製粉

小麦の約9割は輸入で、国内産は1割ほどである。輸入小麦については、「主要食糧の需給及び価格の安定に関する法律」（食糧法）に基づいて、政府が需要に見合った量の小麦を輸入して製粉会社に売却している。国内産小麦の取引は2000年から民間流通に移行し、政府を経由することなく、生産者（団体）と製粉会社等が売買契約をして流通するようになった。小麦輸送船が工場岸壁に着くと、パイプを差し込み、真空ポンプで吸い上げて、雑物除去、計量後、サイロに貯蔵される。国内産小麦はトラックで納入されることが多い。初めの精選工程では、小麦以外のものを除去し、粒表面を磨いてから、少量の水を含ませて24～36時間タンク中でねかせる。次の挽砕(ばんさい)工程では、ロールとふるい機で無理のないよう段階的に粉砕とふるい分けが繰り返され、ピュリファイヤーという粉中に混じった皮の小片を除去する機械も使って、数十種類の粉に仕分ける。これらを組み合わせて、目標の品質、等級の小麦粉になるように、2～4種類の製品にまとめる。製品をタンクに入れ、品質検査をしたのち、家庭用は500グラムや1キログラムに袋詰めし、業務用は25キログラム包装をするか、タンクローリー車にばら積みして出荷する。日本で製造されている小麦粉はすべて無漂白である。学校給食用には、ビタミンB₁・B₂が添加される。

［長尾精一］

成分・栄養

種類や等級によって成分が異なり、それらを幅で示すと、炭水化物67～78％、タンパク質6～17％、脂質1～3％、無機質は特殊なものを除いて1％以下、水分14～15％である。炭水化物中、繊維が0.2～0.3％で、残りの大部分はデンプン、ペントザンが数％、デキストリン、水溶性糖類も少量含まれている。小麦粉のデンプンは円形か楕円(だえん)形で、直径25～35マイクロメートルの平たい大粒と、2～8マイクロメートルの球形の小粒である。デンプンは小麦粉中で最大のカロリー源で、消化管中で酵素（アミラーゼ）や酸によって分解されてブドウ糖になり、体内に吸収されるが、なまでは吸収されにくいので、熱を加え糊化(こか)して食べる。アミログラフ試験機で小麦粉糊(のり)の性質を調べると、60℃を超えたあたりから糊化が始まり、85℃以上で粘度が最高になる。うどんの独特の食感は糊化したデンプンの性質に負うところが大きい。小麦粉に水を加えてこねると、タンパク質のグリアジンとグルテニンから粘弾性のあるグルテンが形成される。パンが膨らみ、冷えてもその形を保てたり、麺類に独特の歯ごたえある食感を与えるのは、グルテンの働きによるものである。小麦粉生地の粘弾性はグルテンの性質によるところが大きく、ファリノグラフやエキステンソグラフ試験機でそれを調べられる。小麦粉の制限アミノ酸（ほかの必須(ひっす)アミノ酸が十分にあっても、それが少ないために栄養効果がおさえられるもの）はリジンで、他の穀類と同じようにアミノ酸スコアが低めだが、リジンに富む動物性食品と組み合わせると栄養価の高い食事になる。量は少ないが、各種のビタミン、ミネラル類も含まれており、栄養強化することも可能。

［長尾精一］

利用

日本では弥生(やよい)文化の中・末期に小麦が生産され、なんらかの形で食べられていたらしい。麺(めん)は飛鳥(あすか)時代に、唐菓子(とうがし)は奈良時代に中国から伝来し、16世紀後半には南蛮菓子が入ってきた。これらは日本の風土や日本人の嗜好(しこう)にあうよう同化され、日本的な小麦粉食品になっていった。パンもこのころもたらされたが、一般への普及は明治以降である。明治から大正、昭和へと小麦粉利用の幅が広がり、現在の日本では世界でももっとも多用途に利用されている。グルテンの力の差が、いろいろな用途を生み出す。日本での最大の用途はパンで、食パンをはじめ、フランスパン、菓子パン、各種のバラエティー・ブレッド（ドライフルーツ、ナッツ、穀類などを練りこんだパン）の主原料である。強力粉か準強力粉を使用し、粉100に対し水を60～70加えて、グルテンが十分に形成されるようにこねる。ゆで麺、乾麺、即席麺、中華麺、マカロニ、スパゲッティなど麺類に消費される量も多い。うどんには主として中力粉を使用する。機械製麺では粉100に対し水30～35を加えて、ミキサーでおから状にしたのち、ロールで圧延しながらグルテンを形成する。ケーキ、カステラ、ビスケット、クッキー、まんじゅう、かりんとう、ドーナツなど菓子類の用途も広い。薄力粉が主体だが、一部に中力粉も使われる。そのほか、プレミックス、パン粉、焼き麩(ふ)、デンプン工業用の原料になったり、接着剤や飼料としても使われる。

［長尾精一］

調理

てんぷらをつくるこつは、薄力粉を使う、衣は少量ずつつくる、冷水か卵入り冷水中にふるった小麦粉を入れる、手早く軽く混ぜる（グルテンが出すぎて粘らないように）、油はたっぷり用意、揚げる温度は魚が180℃、野菜が170～175℃、揚げたらすぐ油をきるなど。ケーキ作りのこつは、薄力粉を使い、ふるう、卵は十分泡立て、砂糖は2～3回に分けて加える、切り込むようにさっくり軽く混ぜる（練らない）、中火か弱火で170～180℃で焼くなど。ルウも家庭用の薄力粉でよいが、パン、ピッツァ、餃子(ギョウザ)の皮には強力粉を使う。小麦粉はにおいや湿気を吸いやすいので、使ったらしっかり封をしておき、ふるってから料理にとりかかるとよい。

［長尾精一］

『長尾精一著『小麦とその加工』（1984・建帛社）』▽『日清製粉株式会社編『小麦粉博物誌』『小麦粉博物誌2』（1985、1986・文化出版局）』▽『三輪茂雄著『粉の文化史――石臼からハイテクノロジーまで』（1987・新潮社）』▽『小竹千香子著、永井泰子絵『小麦粉のひみつ――たのしい料理と実験』（1991・さ・え・ら書房）』▽『ポメランツ著、長尾精一訳『最新の穀物科学と技術』（1992・パンニュース社）』▽『日本麦類研究会編・刊『小麦粉――その原料と加工品』改訂第3版（1994）』▽『長尾精一著『粉屋さんが書いた小麦粉の本』（1994・三水社）』▽『長尾精一編『小麦の科学』（1995・朝倉書店）』▽『長尾精一監修、清水弘煕編著『独・英・日　製粉・製パン・製菓用語辞典』（1997・製粉振興会、三修社発売）』▽『大塚滋著『パンと麺と日本人――小麦からの贈りもの』（1997・集英社）』▽『板倉聖宣監修『調べてみようわたしたちの食べもの2　小麦』（1999・小峰出版）』▽『柴田茂久・中江利昭編著『小麦粉製品の知識』（2000・幸書房）』▽『斎藤修・木島実編『小麦粉製品のフードシステム――川中からの接近』（2003・農林統計協会）』