Department store - Hyakkaten (English spelling)

Japanese: 百貨店 - ひゃっかてん（英語表記）department store

A literal translation would be "department store," but in America, this term is used because of the emphasis on departmental organization. In France, it is called grand magasin (meaning large-scale store) because of the emphasis on its large scale. In Germany, it is called Warenhaus (meaning goods store), which is close to the Japanese term "department store" (meaning a store that has everything). In Japan, the English abbreviation is also called depato.

[Kouichi Ito]

Definition

They can be broadly divided into three definitions: economic definition, legal definition, and statistical definition.

[1] Economic definition: A retail enterprise has the following five characteristics: (1) it sells a wide variety of products, covering everything from food to clothing and shelter, (2) it provides a variety of services, such as delivery and credit sales, with a focus on customer service through face-to-face sales, (3) it has a departmental organization with an independent accounting system, (4) it is not simply a collection of rented sales floors, but has unity under a single capital, and (5) it has a large sales floor area and a large number of employees. According to the 2007 Commercial Statistics, the average sales floor area per store was 23,630 square meters, and the number of employees was 1,224.

[2] Legal definition: This was formerly clearly stated in the Department Store Law (Second Edition) enacted in 1956, but with the repeal of the law in 1973, this definition in legal text disappeared. The Department Store Law defined a department store as a business as follows: "A store that sells goods and operates the same business, including stores with a total floor area of 1,500 square meters or more (3,000 square meters in special wards of Tokyo and other cities designated by government ordinance)" (Article 2). The current membership qualifications for the Japan Department Stores Association are almost the same as those stipulated in the Department Store Law.

[3] Statistical definitions There were two important definitions in the "designated statistics" prescribed under the old Statistics Act enacted in 1947. The first was the provision in the Department Store Sales Statistics (Designated Statistics No. 34) that "a department store is a store that retails various goods related to food, clothing and shelter and has 50 or more employees" (Department Store Sales Statistics Survey Regulations, Ministry of International Trade and Industry Ordinance of 1950). This is the definition of a department store as a store (establishment). The other was the definition of "department store" in the Japan Standard Industrial Classification, which was the basis for the Commercial Statistics (Designated Statistics No. 23), the basic statistics on commerce. This provision was also essentially the same as the definition in the Department Store Sales Statistics.

In the above legal and statistical definitions, sales methods are not used as a criterion for the definition, so general supermarkets are also included in department stores. Due to the need to grasp the economic definition of department stores (conforming to accepted standards) in statistical terms, some ingenuity was implemented in the publication of the survey results of designated statistics. Since 1974, the statistics on department store sales, which covered stores that were subject to the provisions of the abolished Department Store Law, have been published as "Department Store Sales Statistics," and the statistics on stores that were not subject to the law have been published separately as "Large Retail Store Sales Statistics." In addition, since 1982, the "Commercial Statistics" have been published as a "Commercial Statistics" by Business Type Edition, which classifies department stores in the Japan Standard Industrial Classification into four business types (large department stores, other department stores, large general supermarkets, and medium-sized general supermarkets). After that, in 2002, the Japan Standard Industrial Classification was revised, and the old "department stores" were reclassified as "department stores and general supermarkets." According to this, the types of department stores are as follows: (1) those that handle a range of items including food, clothing, and shelter, with each of these accounting for between 10% and 70% of retail sales, (2) those with 50 or more employees, (3) those that do not use a self-service system, (4) those with a sales floor area of 3,000 square meters or more (6,000 square meters or more in special wards of Tokyo and cities designated by government ordinance), are defined as "large department stores," and (5) those with a sales floor area of less than 3,000 square meters (less than 6,000 square meters in the same case) are defined as "other department stores." The "Statistics of Commerce" also defines "department stores" in the same way, following the Japan Standard Industrial Classification.

[Kouichi Ito]

Development history

Europe and the United States

The founding of Bon Marché by A. Boucico in Paris in 1852 is said to be the beginning of the department store. The founder's new business method was a low-profit, high-turnover business method that aimed for (1) free flow of customers, (2) fixed-price sales, (3) large-volume displays of goods, (4) free returns, and (5) low-price sales, and was revolutionary from the perspective of the business practices of the time. The new business method spread to other countries on the continent of Europe, and even crossed the ocean to the UK and the US. The first department stores were Macy's in the US in 1858, Whiteley in the UK in 1863, and Wertheim in Germany in 1870. They were then opened one after another in Europe and the US, and made great strides in the 1890s, becoming the first big business in the retail industry. Their golden age continued until the 1910s. The factors that supported and promoted this development were: (1) the increasing concentration of population in cities, which led to the concentration of purchasing power in cities; (2) the development of transportation and communication systems, especially the latter, which increased the effectiveness of advertising; (3) as industrialization progressed and mass production systems developed, the need for powerful sales agencies was created; and (4) the development of the joint-stock company system and banking capital, which made it possible to raise the funds needed to invest in large pieces of land and buildings and to purchase large quantities of goods.

The development of department stores began to slow down in the 1930s. In the United States, where department stores were most developed, chain stores rose to prominence, catching up with and even surpassing department stores. Examples include Sears, Roebuck, Safeway, JC Penney, and Woolworth (now Foot Locker). After World War II, department stores faced even more difficulties. In the United States, they faced traffic congestion in large cities, population dispersion to the suburbs and the resulting stagnation and decline in the functionality of urban centers, and the emergence of new retail formats (discount store chains). European countries faced a similar situation to the United States, and it was notable that supermarkets and discount stores, which introduced commercial techniques from the United States, developed rapidly after the war. Seeking a way out, department stores began new strategies from the 1950s to the 1960s. (1) Cooperating with the redevelopment of urban areas while making themselves more upscale (becoming prestige stores), (2) opening branches in the suburbs (becoming chains), especially by establishing anchor stores in shopping centers, and (3) a merger and diversification strategy.

[Kouichi Ito]

Japan

Many of today's department stores have their roots in kimono merchants from the Edo period. The first to take the plunge into becoming a department store was Mitsukoshi Kimono Store, which became a joint-stock company in 1904 (Meiji 37), and many other famous kimono merchants, such as Daimaru, Takashimaya, and Matsuzakaya, soon became department stores. After the Great Kanto Earthquake (1923), department stores began selling daily necessities, and in the Showa era, they pursued a more popular approach, targeting the newly emerging middle class in big cities. New department stores affiliated with railways also appeared, and the golden age of department stores continued until around 1930 (Showa 5). However, during the Showa Depression (1930-1932), competition between department stores intensified and friction with small and medium-sized retailers spread, leading to the enactment of the First Department Store Law in 1937, which imposed legal controls on department store business activities. After the Second World War, with the recovery of production capacity, the deregulation of consumer goods, and the end of requisition, department stores were able to recover to prewar levels in the late 1950s. As department stores rebuilt, they faced conflicts with small and medium-sized retailers, just as they had in the early Showa period. In 1956, the Department Store Law was enacted again, but despite legal restrictions, department stores competed to build huge stores and open branches. However, in the 1960s, department stores began to show signs of decline. New supermarkets and specialty stores grew rapidly, and the position of department stores in the retail industry declined relatively. Under these circumstances, central department stores opened suburban stores, advanced into regional cities, and organized regional department stores into chains and groups. Department stores were reorganized into five major groups (Mitsukoshi, Takashimaya, Daimaru/Matsuzakaya, Seibu, Isetan/Matsuya), and an era of inter-group competition began.

Department stores had continued to grow along with the bubble economy in the late 1980s, but entered a long period of stagnation due to the recession that followed the collapse of the bubble economy and intensifying competition with other retail formats. Sales (Japan Department Stores Association, adjusted for store numbers) fell below the previous year's figures from 1992 to 1999, except for 1996, and sales in 2009 were down about 40% from their peak in 1991. The number of stores also fell from 311 in 1999 to 271 at the end of 2009. Meanwhile, management mergers also occurred one after another, culminating in the mergers of Daimaru and Matsuzakaya, Seibu and Sogo, and Mitsukoshi and Isetan.

[Kouichi Ito]

Sales Policy

(1) Sales organization One of the innovations of department stores was their method of departmental management. Rather than managing numerous and complex products in an average overall manner, they managed them individually and by department. As department stores formed branch networks and witnessed the rise of chain stores, they also began to adopt the principles of chain stores. In other words, the basic organization of the sales department is first broadly divided into a purchasing department and a sales department, and these two departments are further divided by product and sales floor, forming a complex organization. In terms of responsibility and authority, the purchasing department is responsible for the sales and profit margins of each product and sales floor that it is responsible for across all stores , while the sales department is responsible for the sales of each product and sales floor in its own store, and the two departments work together.

(2) Purchasing policy Because department stores purchase a wide variety of products, if you look at each product individually, you cannot say that they purchase in large quantities, and because they need to have a wide selection of products, they use wholesalers as their suppliers. However, they are not just suppliers; they also require wholesalers to take on product planning, sales staff, and sales risks. This is seen as a problem, as it shows that department stores have lost their product planning capabilities and are not modern transactions (helping staff, returns, consignment purchasing).

(3) Sales policy Traditionally, face-to-face sales at stores have been mainstream. Outside-store sales are mainly conducted by outside sales, but traveling sales were strictly regulated by Article 4 of the First Department Store Law. After the Department Store Law was abolished, these regulations were lifted, and now sales are conducted at what are called "out-store events," where specific customers are invited to luxury hotels and other locations. The traditional sales conditions have been "cash, no markup (fixed price sales)," but with the development of the consumer credit system, the proportion of credit sales is increasing.

[Kouichi Ito]

"Modern Department Stores" by Shuzo Koyama (1997, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)" ▽ "The Birth of Department Stores" by Toru Hatada (1999, Chikumashobo) ▽ "The History of the Establishment of the Department Store Industry in Japan - Entrepreneurial Innovation and the Establishment of Management Organization" by Tomoki Sueda (2010, Minerva Shobo)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

直訳すれば「部門商店」となるが、これはアメリカでは部門別組織を重視したための用語である。フランスでは規模の大きいことを重視してgrand magasin（大規模館の意）と称している。ドイツではWarenhaus（商品館の意）と称しており、日本でいう百貨店（なんでもそろっている店の意）の意味に近い。日本では英語を略してデパートともいう。

［伊藤公一］

定義

経済的定義、法的定義、統計上の定義、の三つに大別される。

〔1〕経済的定義　企業としては次の五つの特徴をもつ小売企業である。(1)販売商品が衣食住にわたり多種多様で、(2)対面販売による接客サービスを中心に配送、掛売りなどの各種サービスを提供し、(3)独立採算制をとる部門別組織を備え、(4)賃貸売場の単なる集合体ではなく、単一資本による統一性をもっており、(5)売場面積は大きく、従業員数も多い。2007年（平成19）の「商業統計」では、1店舗当りの平均売場面積は2万3630平方メートル、従業員数は1224人となっている。

〔2〕法的定義　かつては1956年（昭和31）に制定された百貨店法（第二次）に明記されていたが、1973年の同法の廃止とともに法律文のうえでの定義はなくなった。百貨店法は、企業としての百貨店を次のように規定していた。すなわち「物品販売業であって、これを営むための店舗のうちに、同一の店舗で床面積の合計が1500平方メートル（都の特別区およびその他政令指定都市の区域内では3000平方メートル）以上のものを含むもの」（2条）である。現在の日本百貨店協会の会員資格もほぼ百貨店法の規定と同じである。

〔3〕統計上の定義　1947年制定の旧統計法に基づいて規定されていた「指定統計」における定義には、重要なものが二つあった。一つは百貨店販売統計（指定統計第34号）の、「百貨店とは、衣食住に関する各種商品を小売する店舗で、その従業員数が50人以上のもの」（百貨店販売統計調査規則、通産省令昭和25年）という規定である。これは、店舗（事業所）としての百貨店の定義である。もう一つは商業の基本統計である商業統計（指定統計第23号）が依拠していた日本標準産業分類上の「百貨店」の定義である。この規定も百貨店販売統計の定義と実質的に同じであった。

　以上の法的・統計上の定義では、販売方式が定義の基準に用いられないから、総合スーパーも百貨店に含まれてしまう。経済的定義の（通念に合致した）百貨店を統計のうえで把握する必要から、指定統計の調査結果の公表にはくふうが施された。1974年以降、百貨店販売統計は、廃止された百貨店法の規定が適用される店舗分の集計を「百貨店販売統計」として発表し、これに非適用店舗分を集計したものを別に「大型小売店販売統計」として発表した。また「商業統計」のほうも、1982年からは日本標準産業分類上の百貨店を四つの業態に区分（大型百貨店、その他の百貨店、大型総合スーパー、中型総合スーパー）した統計結果を「商業統計」業態別統計編として発表するようになった。その後、2002年に日本標準産業分類が改定されて、旧来の「百貨店」は「百貨店・総合スーパー」と格付けされた。それによると、百貨店の業態とは、(1)取扱品目が衣食住にわたり、それぞれが小売販売額の10％以上70％未満で、(2)従業者数50人以上、(3)セルフ方式をとらないもので、(4)売場面積3000平方メートル以上（都の特別区および政令指定都市は6000平方メートル以上）を「大型百貨店」、(5)売場面積3000平方メートル未満（同6000平方メートル未満）を「その他の百貨店」、としている。「商業統計」も日本標準産業分類に準拠して、同じように「百貨店」を定義している。

［伊藤公一］

発展史

欧米

1852年のパリでA・ブーシコによるボン・マルシェBon Marchéの設立が百貨店の創始といわれている。設立者の新しい商法は、(1)顧客の出入り自由、(2)正札販売、(3)商品の大量陳列、(4)返品自由、(5)低価格販売、をねらった低差益・高回転の商法であり、当時の商取引慣習からみれば革新的商法であった。新商法は他のヨーロッパ大陸諸国に波及し、さらには海を越えてイギリス、アメリカにも及んだ。アメリカではメーシーMacyが1858年に、イギリスではホワイトレーWhiteleyが1863年に、ドイツではウェルトハイムWertheimが1870年に、それぞれ最初の百貨店として開設された。その後欧米諸国で相次いで開設され、1890年代に飛躍的発展を遂げて、小売業界における初めてのビッグ・ビジネスになった。その黄金時代は1910年代まで続いた。発展を支え、促した要因は、(1)人口の都市集中が進み、購買力が都市に集中したこと、(2)交通・通信機関が発達し、とくに後者が広告の効果を高めたこと、(3)工業化が進み大量生産体制が発展するにつれ、強大な販売機関が要請されたこと、(4)株式会社制度と銀行資本が発達し、巨大な土地・建物への資本投下と商品の大量仕入れに要する資金調達が可能となったことである。

　百貨店の発達が鈍り始めたのは1930年代からである。百貨店がもっとも発展したアメリカではチェーン・ストアの台頭が著しく、百貨店に追い付き、追い越すまでになっていた。シアーズ・ローバック、セーフウェー、JCペニー、ウールワース（現フットロッカー）などがその例である。第二次世界大戦後、百貨店はさらに苦難の道をたどった。アメリカでは大都市の交通混雑、人口の郊外分散とそれがもたらす都心部の停滞と機能低下、新しい小売業態の出現（ディスカウント・ストアのチェーン）などである。ヨーロッパ各国でもアメリカと同様の状況で、とくにアメリカから商業技術を導入したスーパーマーケット、ディスカウント・ストアが戦後急速に発展をみたのが特徴的であった。百貨店は活路を求めて、1950年代から1960年代にかけて新しい戦略を開始した。(1)都心部再開発に協力しつつ自らをいっそう高級化する（プレステッジ・ストア化）、(2)郊外への支店設置（チェーン化）、とくにショッピング・センターに核店舗として進出する、(3)合併・多角化戦略、であった。

［伊藤公一］

日本

現在の百貨店の多くは江戸時代の呉服商をルーツとする。百貨店化に最初に踏み出したのは1904年（明治37）に株式会社となった三越(みつこし)呉服店であり、大丸、高島屋、松坂屋など有名呉服商の多くが相次いで百貨店化した。関東大震災（1923）を契機に百貨店は日用品販売を開始し、昭和に入ってからは大都市の新興中産階級をも対象とする大衆化路線を進める。新たに電鉄系百貨店もおこり、1930年（昭和5）ごろまでは百貨店の黄金時代であった。しかし昭和恐慌期（1930～1932）には百貨店間競争の激化と、中小小売商との摩擦が広がり、1937年制定の百貨店法（第一次）により、百貨店の営業活動に法的統制が加えられるに至った。第二次世界大戦後、生産力回復、消費物資の統制解除、接収解除を経て、百貨店が戦前水準を回復しえたのは1950年代後半であった。百貨店の復興に伴い、昭和初期と同様、中小小売商との対立が生じ、1956年ふたたび百貨店法が制定されたが、法規制にもかかわらず百貨店は巨大店舗建設、支店開設を競った。しかし、1960年代に入って百貨店は退潮の兆しをみせ始める。新興のスーパーと専門店が急成長し、小売業界における百貨店の地位は相対的に低下していったのである。こうした状況下に中央の百貨店は郊外店づくり、地方都市への進出、地方百貨店の系列化・グループ化を進め、百貨店は再編されて、五大グループ（三越、高島屋、大丸・松坂屋、西武、伊勢丹(いせたん)・松屋）に分かれ、グループ間競争の時代に入った。

　1980年代後半のバブル経済とともに成長を続けていた百貨店は、バブル経済崩壊後の不況と他の小売業態との競争激化で、長期低迷期に入った。売上高（日本百貨店協会、店舗調整済）は、1992年（平成4）から1999年まで、1996年を除き前年実績を下回り、ピーク時の1991年と比べて2009年のそれは約4割の減少となった。店舗数も1999年の311店舗から2009年末には271店舗に減少した。一方、経営統合も相次ぎ、大丸と松坂屋、西武とそごう、三越と伊勢丹が経営統合するに至った。

［伊藤公一］

営業政策

(1)営業組織　百貨店の革新性の一つは部門別管理の手法であった。多数でかつ複雑多岐な性格をもつ商品を全体的・平均的に管理するのではなく、部門別・個別的に管理することである。やがて百貨店は支店網を形成するにつれ、またチェーン・ストアの興隆を目の当たりにして、チェーン・ストアの原理も採用するに至る。すなわち、営業部門の基本組織は、仕入れ部門と販売部門にまず大別し、仕入れ、販売両部門をさらに商品別・売場別に分けるといった複雑な組織を形成している。責任権限面からみると、仕入れ部門は、全店舗にわたって自ら担当する商品別・売場別の販売高と差益高に責任をもち、販売部門は、自ら担当する一店舗の商品別・売場別の販売高に責任をもち、両者が協業する関係にある。

(2)仕入れ政策　多種商品を仕入れる関係から、一つ一つの商品をとってみると大量仕入れとはいえないし、品ぞろえを豊富にする必要からも問屋を仕入れ先としている。しかし、単なる仕入れ先にとどまらず、問屋に商品企画や販売員、販売リスクまで負わせている。これが百貨店の商品企画力の喪失、非近代的取引（手伝い店員、返品、委託仕入れ）として問題視される点である。

(3)販売政策　店頭による対面販売方式が伝統的に主流となっている。店外販売としては外商が中心であるが、出張販売は百貨店法（第一次）の第4条で厳しく規制されていた。百貨店法廃止後はこの規制がなくなり、現在は「店外催事」などとよばれて、特定顧客を高級ホテル等に招いて販売が行われている。「現金、掛け値なし（正札販売）」が伝統的な販売条件になっているが、消費者信用制度の発達に伴い、クレジット販売の比率が上昇しつつある。

［伊藤公一］

『小山周三著『現代の百貨店』（1997・日本経済新聞社）』▽『初田亨著『百貨店の誕生』（1999・筑摩書房）』▽『末田智樹著『日本百貨店業成立史――企業家の革新と経営組織の確立』（2010・ミネルヴァ書房）』