Japan - Nihon

Japanese: 日本 - にほん

◎Official name: Japan. ◎Area: 377,970.75 ^km2 . ◎Population: 128,057,000 (2010). ◎Capital: Tokyo (13,160,000, 2010). ◎Residents: Japanese, Ainu, Korean, Chinese, etc. ◎Religion: Buddhism, Shinto, Christianity, etc. ◎Language: Japanese (official language). ◎Currency: Yen. ◎Prime Minister: Abe Shinzo (born 1954, inaugurated December 2012). ◎Constitution: promulgated November 1946, came into effect May 1947. ◎Diet: bicameral. House of Representatives (475 seats, four-year term), House of Councillors (242 seats, six-year term). Distribution of seats in the House of Representatives as of March 2016: LDP 290, Democratic Party, Japan Innovation Party, and Independents Club 92, Komeito 35, Japanese Communist Party 21, Osaka Restoration Association 13, Your Life Party and Taro Yamamoto and Friends 2, Social Democratic Party and Citizens' Alliance 2, Independents 18, vacant seats 2. Distribution of seats in the House of Councillors as of March 2016: LDP 116, Democratic Party and New Green Wind Party 59, Komeito 20, Japanese Communist Party 11, Osaka Restoration Association 7, Japan Innovation Party 5, Party to Cherish the Japanese Heart 4, Japan Revitalization Association and Independents 4, Social Democratic Party and Constitutional Protection Alliance 3, Your Life Party and Taro Yamamoto and Friends 3, Independents Club 2, New Party Reform and Independents 2, and 6 members of parliament not affiliated with any faction. ◎GDP - $4.9093 trillion (2008). ◎GDP per capita - $33,800 (2007). ◎ Ratio of people employed in agriculture, forestry, and fishing -3.4% (2003). ◎ Life expectancy -79.0 years for men, 86.0 years for women (2007). ◎ Infant mortality rate -2‰ (2010). ◎ Literacy rate -100%. ＊＊A country that occupies the Japanese archipelago, which stretches from northeast to southwest, east of the Asian continent, with a length of over 3,500 km and a width of 300 km at its widest point. In ancient times, it was called Wa or Wakoku, and was written this way from the Chinese "Book of Han" to the "Book of Sui". The name "Japan" is thought to have been established with the establishment of the Ritsuryo state. It can be read in two ways, "Nihon" and "Nippon", and in 1934 the Ministry of Education proposed unifying it with the latter. The current constitution reads "Nihonkoku". Japan's territory consists of the four major islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, as well as the surrounding islands. In 1968, the Ogasawara Islands were returned to Japan and became part of Tokyo, and in 1972, Okinawa was returned and became Okinawa Prefecture. The capital is Tokyo. [Topography] The topography of the Japanese archipelago is divided into two major regions, Southwest Japan and Northeast Japan, based on geological structure, and the boundary between them is the Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line, which runs north-south through central Honshu. Southwest Japan is further divided into the Inner Zone (northern side) and the Outer Zone (southern side), and the boundary between them is the Median Tectonic Line, a long fault zone. The topography is highly undulating due to intense crustal movement, and is divided into ridges and grabens by many faults, with the land generally being mountainous with narrow plains. In addition, as a result of new crustal movement, river terraces, coastal terraces, dissected alluvial fans, raised deltas, raised marine plateaus, coastal plains, and other landforms have been formed in various places. In Northeast Japan, three rows of mountains run parallel to each other in the north-south direction. This mountain range includes high mountain ranges such as the Kitami Mountains, Hidaka Mountains, Ou Mountains, Mikuni Mountains, Echigo Mountains, and Kanto Mountains, and hilly mountain ranges such as the Kitakami Highlands, Abukuma Highlands, and Dewa Mountains. In the mountain ranges of southwestern Japan, the outer belt of mountains such as the Kii Mountains, Shikoku Mountains, and Kyushu Mountains are high, while the inner belt of mountains such as the Chugoku Mountains and Tamba Highlands are plateau-like. In the central part of Honshu, the Hida Mountains (Northern Alps), Kiso Mountains (Central Alps), and Akaishi Mountains (Southern Alps), known as the Japanese Alps, rise with high peaks of about 3,000 meters above sea level, and Japan's highest peak, Mount Fuji (3,776 meters above sea level), is also located in this region. Japan's topography is also characterized by its many volcanoes, and there are many volcanic zones, most of which are stratovolcanoes, but there are also many lava domes. Many volcanoes have developed calderas, and the caldera of Mount Aso is known as the largest in the world, measuring 17 km east to west and 25 km north to south. Rivers in Japan are generally short and steep. As a result, precipitation flows down the river immediately, carrying coarse sediment, and alluvial fans are prominent at the mouths of mountain valleys. In these areas, the riverbed often rises due to sedimentation, creating ceiling rivers. Large rivers include Ishikari, Tokachi, Kitakami, Mogami, Abukuma, Tone, Shinano, Tenryu, Kiso, Yodo, Yoshino, and Chikugo. The Tone River has the largest drainage area (16,840 ^km2 ), and the Shinano River is the longest (367 km long main river). Another notable feature is its complex coastline, which stretches out to 28,000 km. The Pacific coast of Iwate Prefecture, the Shima Peninsula, the west coast of Shikoku, and the northwest coast of Kyushu are a combination of coasts with many inlets and outlets, and smooth coasts made of sand, such as the Japan Coast of Yamagata Prefecture, Niigata Prefecture, and Tottori Prefecture. Japan's plains and basins are very small and tend to be scattered in various places. All of them are alluvial plains caused by river action, but they often consist of plateaus and lowlands. The main plains are the Kanto Plain, the largest in Japan, which is about 140 km east to west and about 110 km north to south, as well as plains in Ishikari, Echigo, Nobi, Osaka, Chikugo, and others. [Climate] The average annual temperature is 10 to 18°C, and the annual precipitation is 1000 to 2500 mm. Located in the temperate zone on the east coast of the Eurasian continent, it is elongated from north to south and has the following characteristics due to its geographical location: 1. It has colder winters and hotter summers than the west coast of the continent at the same latitude (east coast climate). 2. Monsoons prevail, making it hot and humid in summer (monsoon climate). 3. It rains a lot. There are three rainy seasons: spring rain, rainy season, and autumn rain. 4. Heavy snowfall on the Sea of Japan side in winter and sunny, dry weather on the Pacific side (clear climate boundary). 5. The weather changes drastically because it is in the path of a low pressure system (frontal zone climate). 6. Located in the temperate zone, it has many seasonal changes (temperate climate). 7. The climate difference between the north and south is large, and it straddles two climate zones. 8. Compared to the interior of the continent, it is milder due to the influence of the ocean (continental degree 40-50. It has a somewhat oceanic climate). 9. A country frequently hit by typhoons. 10. The topography is complex, with a complex distribution of basin climates, mountain climates, and other climates, and local winds such as land and sea breezes develop. 11. There are many meteorological disasters, including wind and flood damage caused by typhoons and the rainy season, as well as cold damage and frost damage. Japan's climate is divided into two major boundaries, depending on the classification method. One of these is the mountain range that forms the backbone of Japan, which divides the country into the Sea of Japan side (coastal) climate and the Pacific side (coastal) climate. The difference between the two is most noticeable in winter, when the former experiences cloudy weather and lots of snow, while the latter experiences dry, sunny skies. The difference between the two climates is evident from Hokkaido to Kyushu, where the two climates are mixed together in complex ways. Another major boundary is the boundary between the subarctic and temperate climates in the Köppen climate classification, and the boundary between the mid-latitude air mass zone and the subtropical zone in the Alisov climate classification, both of which run east-west along a line roughly at 37°-38° north latitude. However, this boundary line is distorted by the elevation of the land. The difference in climate north and south of this boundary is clearly reflected in the distribution of plants and animals. [Resources] Japan has a wide variety of underground resources, but most of these are only representative, and its industrial raw material resources are extremely poor compared to other countries. The resources that are produced in large quantities are limestone, sulfur, coal, and copper, lead, and zinc ores, but iron ore, bauxite, nickel ore, and crude oil, which are essential for modern industry, are almost entirely imported. Coal production is also low, especially for coking coal (especially strong coking coal for steelmaking), and the ratio of imported resources is rapidly increasing with the expansion of industry and the progress of heavy chemical industry. One example is copper, which was once exported, but now requires most of the raw copper ore from overseas. Although hydroelectric resources are abundant, the energy revolution and the practical application of nuclear power have led to a steady increase in imports of energy resources. However, we should not ignore the fact that such poor domestic resources have led to the formation of the most advantageous industrial locations internationally today (coastal industrial complexes). In addition, the development of coastal and seabed resources (such as oil resources on the continental shelf), which has recently attracted worldwide attention, is beginning to take place around Japan, and it is expected that results will be realized. [Economy] The capitalization of the Japanese economy has progressed rapidly since the Meiji Restoration through government policy intervention, such as the forced promotion of industry, as seen in the creation of government-run businesses and their disposal. In the early 20th century, the textile industry, such as spinning and silk reeling, which was based on the use of cheap labor, and the mining and metallurgical industries, which were based on military demand, were established. After the Russo-Japanese War and World War I, modern industries such as machinery and chemicals were also established by the 1930s. The accumulation of capital during this period completed the domination of major industries by the zaibatsu, but on the other hand, non-modern agriculture, dominated by parasitic landlordism, and the widespread coexistence of small and medium-sized enterprises coexisted, and the characteristics of the Japanese economy, which are said to be a dual structure, such as low wages, low living standards, and large amounts of potential unemployment, were born. The Japanese economy was devastated by World War II, but after the war it achieved an astonishing recovery and development, and in 1956 the Economic White Paper declared that "it is no longer the post-war period," and in 1968 Japan surpassed West Germany in gross national product to become the third largest in the world after the United States and the Soviet Union. The postwar economic development started with economic democratization, such as land reform, the dissolution and elimination of zaibatsu, and the enactment of the Antimonopoly Act. It progressed to the high economic growth of the 1960s, centered on capital accumulation based on the huge profits gained from the Korean War and capital investment due to technological innovation. The real growth rate exceeded 10% per year, which was unprecedented in the world. This high growth was supported in part by the fact that private capital investment always accounted for around 20% of the gross national product, a very high proportion compared to other countries, that per capita national income was low (19th in the world in 1968) even though the gross national product had increased, which meant there was a lot of room for development, and by the growth of exports. During this period of high growth, the concentration of production in large companies in major industries progressed further. In addition, the country was faced with the first ever labor shortage, which led to the modernization of agriculture and the rationalization of small and medium-sized enterprises, which were leveraged to promote the elimination of the dual structure. However, as a result of high economic growth, the highest consumer price rise among developed countries, a shortage of social capital, overcrowding and industrial pollution in large cities, and the creation of depopulated areas, among other imbalances in people's lives that are called the distortions of high economic growth, became evident. In the 1970s, the dollar-based currency stabilization system (IMF) collapsed due to changes in economic relations between major countries, and Japan moved to a floating exchange rate system, ushering in a period of change in the world economic system. Furthermore, industries in developed countries entered an era of extremely fast-paced technological innovation, centered on microelectronics (ME) technology. Then came the oil crisis of 1973, and like other developed countries, the Japanese economy fell into a state of simultaneous recession and inflation (stagflation). The end of high economic growth as a result of this had a major impact on many areas, one of which was finances. Tax revenues fell sharply while fiscal expenditures for economic stimulus measures increased, leading to the issuance of large amounts of deficit government bonds, and the accumulating fiscal deficit became an issue. The privatization and division of the Japanese National Railways, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation, and the Japan Tobacco and Salt Public Corporation, as well as the policy of administrative reform and the introduction of the consumption tax in 1988, all originated from this. The oil crisis also led companies to adjust employment, but labor unions tried to secure employment by suppressing demands for wage increases, and chose a line of labor-management cooperation, bringing about a major change in the postwar labor movement. Furthermore, the progress of energy conservation also promoted a transformation of the industrial structure. This includes an increase in the proportion of energy-saving machinery industries in the manufacturing industry, but the population of the service industry, which consumes less energy, in particular increased, coupled with the large number of women entering the labor market around this time. The Japanese economy quickly achieved industrial adjustment in response to these oil crises, and this was supported by a dramatic improvement in labor productivity through the utilization of the ME technology revolution, and this technology also allowed Japan to rapidly increase exports, mainly of machinery products. On the other hand, this created trade friction in automobiles, semiconductors, etc. (see <Japan-US Automotive Consultation> <Japan-US Semiconductor Agreement>), and the imbalance in the balance of payments led to a rapid appreciation of the yen from the late 1980s. With the yen's appreciation as a backdrop, speculation in stocks, land, buildings, etc. became abnormally active in the late 1980s, leading to a sharp rise in stock prices and land prices. This excessive "investment bubble" (bubble economy) burst in 1990, causing stock prices and land prices to plummet, leaving serious damage to investors and companies, huge amounts of bad loans, and distrust in financial institutions ("bad loan disposal problems" and "bankrupt financial institutions"). This has prolonged the recession until the beginning of the 21st century. Meanwhile, various issues have emerged, such as the progress of financial liberalization (the "Japanese version of the Big Bang") amid the globalization of the economy, companies moving overseas in search of cheap labor and the hollowing out of domestic industries, and the influx of foreign workers seeking employment. Furthermore, the gap between rich and poor and between regions is widening as a result of structural reform, and the Japanese economy is now in a difficult situation, including issues such as administrative reform, the pension system, and an aging society. [Politics] The Constitution of Japan declares that sovereignty resides with the people, and stipulates that the Emperor is the symbol of the State and the unity of the Japanese people, and that his position is based on the will of the people (Preamble and Article 1 of the Constitution). The governing body is based on the principle of separation of powers. Legislative power belongs to the National Diet, the highest organ of state power, and the National Diet is composed of the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors, both of which are composed of popularly elected representatives (Articles 41-43 of the Constitution). Executive power belongs to the Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister, and the Cabinet is responsible to the National Diet for the exercise of executive power (Articles 65 and 66 of the Constitution). Judicial power belongs to the Supreme Court and statutory lower courts, and the courts have the power to review legislation that is unconstitutional (Articles 76 and 81 of the Constitution). The central administrative organs consist of one office and 10 ministries, and local administration is handled by prefectures and cities, towns, and villages. The police are responsible for maintaining public order, with the National Public Safety Commission and the National Police Agency at the center, and the Prefectural Public Safety Commissions and Prefectural Police at the local levels. The Self-Defense Forces are responsible for defense-related matters, with the Ground, Maritime, and Air Self-Defense Forces under the control of the Ministry of Defense. The major political parties were the Liberal Democratic Party and the Japan Socialist Party, which were the two major conservative and progressive parties, under the "55 System" that lasted from 1955 to 1993, with the Democratic Socialist Party, the Japanese Communist Party, and the New Komeito Party at the core, but in the 1990s, the party system was restructured and multiple parties were formed, with the New Party Sakigake, the New Frontier Party (with the Democratic Socialist Party also joining), and the Democratic Party appearing, and the New Komeito Party was renamed the Social Democratic Party in 1996. After the New Frontier Party was dissolved at the end of 1997, the various parties were restructured, and in 1999, the "LDP-LDP-Komeito" coalition government was formed by the Liberal Democratic Party, the Liberal Party, and the New Komeito Party. In 2000, the group that maintained the coalition government separated from the Liberal Party to form the Conservative Party (later the Conservative New Party), and the "LDP-Komeito-Komeito" coalition was formed. After that, around the time of the 2003 House of Representatives election, the Liberal Party joined the Democratic Party, and the New Conservative Party merged with the LDP, increasing the Democratic Party's influence as an opposition party. In the general election of August 2009, the Democratic Party won a landslide victory, achieving a historic change of power with a coalition government of the Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party, and the People's New Party, but in the general election of December 2012, the Democratic Party suffered a major defeat at the hands of the LDP, and the LDP and Komeito regained power, forming the Shinzo Abe Cabinet, a coalition of the LDP and Komeito. [History] During the Pleistocene, Japan was connected to the continent by land, and a Paleolithic culture similar to that of the continent developed there, but during the Alluvial Epoch, it became an archipelago and transitioned to a unique Neolithic culture known as the Jomon culture (Jomon period). Around the 3rd to 4th century BC, the Yayoi culture, characterized by the joint use of metal implements and wet-rice cultivation, arose in western Japan and spread to eastern Japan (the Yayoi period). Grain accumulation and irrigation water control led to class differentiation, and small states with priests as kings were established in various regions. These eventually grew into local states such as Yamatai, but from the late 3rd century, the Yamato government, a coalition of powerful clans, began to unify Japan, and from the late 4th century, there was diplomatic relations with the Kara countries of southern Korea. Kofun (ancient tombs) were built in various regions as a symbol of the authority of the new rulers, and industrial technology and Chinese characters were adopted from the continent and Korea, establishing the Kofun culture (the Kofun period). Buddhism was introduced to Japan at the end of the 6th century, and the first Buddhist culture in Japan arose during the Asuka period in the first half of the 7th century. The Yamato Imperial Court was pressured by the Sui and Tang dynasties' advances to the east, and a need arose for national reform. In the latter half of the 7th century, after the Taika Reforms and the Jinshin War, a centralized Ritsuryo state was formed that imitated the Chinese system and placed the Emperor at the political and religious center. The culture of the Nara period to the early Heian period in the 8th and 9th centuries was significantly influenced by continental culture, and this trend continued for a long time afterwards, but in the early Heian period, kana was created, and from the middle of the Heian period onwards, a unique aesthetic sense was born among the court nobles in Kyoto, and came to be called Kokufu culture. Politically, the Ritsuryo state changed, and regent government was established, followed by insei, which developed with manors as the economic base. As centralization declined, powerful clans all over the country grew into samurai, seizing control over manors, and at the end of the 12th century, Minamoto no Yoritomo established a shogunate in Kamakura. The Kamakura Shogunate demonstrated its power in the 13th century, surpassing that of the Kyoto Imperial Court in the Jōkyū War and the Bun'ei and Kōan Wars, but was unable to fully control the manorial and local lords, and fell in the first half of the 14th century. In the Kamakura period, the various sects of Japanese Buddhism today developed, influenced by Buddhism from the Nara and Heian periods. After the upheaval of the Northern and Southern Courts period, the Muromachi Shogunate of the Ashikaga clan was established in Kyoto in the mid-14th century. During this Muromachi period, the shugo became feudal lords and grew into shugo daimyo, and Higashiyama culture flourished as the culture of the nobles and samurai blended. However, after the Onin and Bunmei Wars, the Sengoku period began, when warring daimyo who had overthrown the shugo daimyo took control of various regions, leading to the decline of the ancient aristocracy and the decline of the shogunate's power. Christianity and firearms were introduced to Japan in the mid-16th century, and Christianity spread through the energetic propagation of missionaries, with firearms having a decisive impact on the tactics and fortification methods of the Sengoku daimyo. Oda Nobunaga, who gained hegemony from these wars, and then Toyotomi Hideyoshi, unified the country. The Taiko land survey established a new system of taxation and control of rural areas, and the sword hunt separated soldiers from farmers. The magnificent culture of the Azuchi-Momoyama period was born under the Azuchi-Momoyama government. Tokugawa Ieyasu, the last of the Sengoku daimyo, rebuilt a unified nation by exploiting the rural areas, and founded the Edo Shogunate. The Shogunate fixed the social classes of samurai, farmers, artisans, and merchants under the Bakuhan system, and isolated the country on the pretext of banning Christianity, and later strengthened its control over the entire country, also using Confucian indoctrination. The continued peace of the Edo period brought about rapid advances in transportation, commerce and industry, the rise of townspeople, the development of a monetary economy, and the emergence of many cities, and the culture of the Genroku and Bunka-Bunsei periods flourished, centering on Edo and Osaka. However, the power of the townspeople, who held real power in the economy, also undermined the authority of the samurai, and the impoverishment of farmers and repeated disasters led to frequent peasant uprisings, and the feudal domain system began to collapse from within. From the mid-18th century, Russia began to advance south from the north, but by the beginning of the 19th century, the shogunate had incorporated Ezochi into its own territory as a direct territory. From the mid-19th century onwards, European and American powers advanced into the East and pressured Japan to open its borders, and the lower-ranking samurai's Sonno Joi movement and the movement to overthrow the shogunate intensified, eventually leading to the collapse of the Edo shogunate, which had lasted for over 260 years, and the Meiji Restoration. The Meiji government, which was established by the restoration of the monarchy in 1868, was a coalition government consisting of the Emperor of the Kyoto Imperial Court, the nobles and feudal lords, and the lower-ranking samurai of the powerful southwestern domains. They defeated the power of the old shogunate in the Boshin War, moved the capital to Edo and renamed it Tokyo, and strengthened the centralized system by returning the domains and peoples to the emperor and abolishing the domains and establishing prefectures. During this time, the Ryukyu Islands, which had been under the control of the Satsuma Domain since the 17th century and were subordinate to both Japan and China, were unified as Okinawa Prefecture through the Ryukyu Disposition, and Ezo was renamed Hokkaido and the assimilation policy of the Ainu was promoted. In this way, the government promoted a policy of civilization and enlightenment and industrial development, and started government-run businesses such as the military, police, telegraphs, railways, and various factories (government-run industries). The Land Tax Reform Ordinance of 1873 confirmed private land ownership and at the same time formed the financial foundation of the government. The rebellions by disgruntled samurai that had been going on since the early Meiji period were put down with the Satsuma War of 1877. At the same time, the Freedom and People's Rights Movement spread throughout the country, and in 1881 the government issued an imperial edict announcing that a national Diet would be opened in ten years. After the government's preparations for the drafting of a constitution proceeded in secret, the Constitution of the Empire of Japan was promulgated in 1889, and the National Diet was opened in 1890, completing the imperial system of rule. As a result of the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan acquired possession of Taiwan, and established a gold standard based on the indemnity it received, putting in place a capitalist economic system. Conflict with Russia over Korea and Manchuria deepened, and Japan established control over Korea and southern Manchuria in the Russo-Japanese War, and in 1910 forced the Japan-Korea Annexation. As capitalism developed within the country, class conflict deepened, and socialist ideas spread, but the government suppressed socialist ideas through incidents such as the High Treason Incident. However, in 1913, the people overthrew the cabinet for the first time in the Movement for the Protection of Constitutional Government. After that, democratic ideas spread in the Taisho Democracy, and demands such as universal suffrage and women's suffrage were developed in conjunction with the demands of workers. The rice riots were a landmark event in which the economic demands of the people became political action. During World War I, Japan presented China with the Twenty-One Demands, and after this, the conflict with Britain and the United States over the China issue and disarmament became decisive. From the financial panic of 1927 to the Great Depression (Showa Depression), the contradictions of Japanese capitalism were fully exposed, and at the same time, imperialist armed invasion of China began. The Manchurian Incident of 1931 deepened Japan's international isolation, and at the same time, the suppression of communist and socialist ideas and the workers' and farmers' movements was strengthened by the Peace Preservation Law. The May 15 Incident and the February 26 Incident strengthened the fascist regime, and Japan sided with the anti-communist front with the Anti-Comintern Pact between Japan and Germany in 1936 (the Anti-Comintern Pact between Japan, Germany, and Italy the following year). With the start of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Japan's war regime was decisive, and control was strengthened in all areas, with the National Mobilization Law becoming its pillar. After the Tripartite Pact between Japan, Germany, and Italy in 1940 and the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact in 1941, Japan entered the Pacific War on December 8 of the same year. Despite early victories, Japan continued to retreat when the full-scale counterattack began, and suffered devastating blows from the Battle of Okinawa, air raids on the mainland, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With the Soviet Union entering the war, Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration in August 1945. The promulgation of the Japanese Constitution in 1946 established the principles of renunciation of war and respect for fundamental human rights, and Japan was able to make a fresh start as a democratic nation. [From postwar progress to the present] Japan surrendered on August 15, 1945, and the Pacific War came to an end. The so-called postwar history that followed was deeply connected to the US policy towards Japan, which had a decisive influence on the reconstruction and development of Japan, and can be roughly divided into the following periods. First Period (1945-1947): As soon as Japan surrendered, it was placed under the occupation of the Allied forces, the General Headquarters of the Occupation Powers (GHQ) was established in Tokyo, and MacArthur of the US became the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers. In effect, it was a sole occupation by the US military, and the US decided the occupation policy alone. Neither the Far Eastern Commission, which was the occupation policy decision-making body consisting of representatives from 11 countries, nor the Council for Japan, which was the advisory body to the Supreme Commander, had any real authority. The method of governance was indirect rule via the Japanese government. During this period, great changes were made, such as the elimination of militarism and the establishment of various democratic systems. The Emperor's Humanity Declaration, the opening of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, the dissolution of the zaibatsu, land reform, the implementation of a new education system, and the promulgation of a new constitution in November 1946. The power of the revolution, which sought peace and democratization, also grew significantly, forcing the Kijuro Shidehara cabinet to resign. Second term (1947-1954). During this period, the occupying authorities made clear their stance of supporting the conservative forces. The February 1st Strike Plan, said to be the largest in history, was not carried out in 1947 due to orders from GHQ, and the labor movement underwent a major transformation. In response to the successive defeats of the Chiang Kai-shek regime in mainland China, the United States abandoned its policy of demilitarizing Japan, with the Royal Statement by the US Secretary of War in 1948 as a turning point, and promoted Japan's independence under the umbrella of the United States as a bulwark against communism. The Democratic Liberal Party won an overwhelming victory in the 1949 general election, and the long-term rule of the Conservative Party began. In 1950, the Korean War began, and GHQ suppressed the power of the revolution with the Red Purge, effectively outlawing the Communist Party. On the other hand, the National Police Reserve was established in response to the US policy of rearming Japan. As the Korean War intensified, Japan became a logistics base for the US military, and the economy recovered due to the so-called special boom. The San Francisco Peace Treaty was signed in 1951, and independence was restored when it came into effect in 1952. However, it was a one-sided peace that excluded the Soviet Union and China, and the US military continued to be stationed there under the Japan-US Security Treaty that was signed at the same time. Next, the Japan-China Peace Treaty was signed with the Republic of China (Taiwan), and the so-called San Francisco System was established. From the time of the peace treaty's signing, peace movements and labor movements grew in opposition to the one-sided peace and base construction, and in this situation, the May Day incident occurred in 1952, just after the peace treaty came into effect. Third period (1954-1960). The Japan-US Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement (MSA Agreement) was signed in 1954, and Japan's rearmament progressed, leading to the birth of the Self-Defense Forces. In 1955, the conservatives merged to form the Liberal Democratic Party, and the left and right factions united to form the Japan Socialist Party, resulting in a transition to a two-party system of conservatives versus reformists (the 1955 system). During this period, the LDP advocated "voluntary revision of the constitution" and launched the Constitution Research Council in 1956. In the economic sphere, the so-called Jinmu boom occurred due to the influx of large amounts of foreign capital, which laid the groundwork for the later income doubling policy. Meanwhile, movements against the enactment of the Subversive Activities Prevention Law and the two Education Laws, movements against the strengthening of military bases in the mainland and Okinawa, and the anti-atomic and hydrogen bomb movement, which began with the Bikini hydrogen bomb test, spread nationwide. In 1956, diplomatic relations between Japan and the Soviet Union were restored, and Japan subsequently joined the United Nations. It also joined the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and thus achieved its return to the international community. Negotiations on the revision of the Security Treaty, which began in 1958, became a major issue that shook the country, and a nationwide anti-Security Treaty movement (Security Treaty Struggle) unfolded. However, the government established a new security treaty in 1960, and Japan's political system entered a new stage. Meanwhile, within this movement, a new form of political participation, the citizen movement, began to take root. Fourth period (1960-1970). The international background of this period was the transition from the Cold War state of the two great powers, the United States and the Soviet Union, to a system of peaceful coexistence. With the advent of the Kennedy administration, the United States' policy toward Japan was revised, and the ties between the two countries were strengthened. Japan aimed to regain its position in Asia, and its advance into Southeast Asian countries became noticeable, which was almost completed with the establishment of the Japan-Korea Treaty in 1965. The foothold of monopoly capital was strengthened, the international status of the Japanese economy was raised, and overseas advancement grew rapidly. A series of movements such as Japan's membership in the OECD in 1964, the proposal for the Southeast Asian Development Ministerial Conference, the proposal for the establishment of the Asian Development Bank in 1965, and the holding of the Asia-Pacific Ministerial Conference in 1966 were manifestations of this.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can doになったんです。 English: The first thing you can doになったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can doになったんです。 English: The first thing you can do Japan is at a major turning point not only in politics and diplomacy, but also in the nature of its economy and society.
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◎正式名称−日本国Japan。◎面積−37万7970.75km²。◎人口−１億2805万7000人（2010）。◎首都−東京（1316万人，2010）。◎住民−日本人，アイヌ，朝鮮人，中国人など。◎宗教−仏教，神道，キリスト教など。◎言語−日本語（公用語）。◎通貨−円。◎首相−安倍晋三（1954年生れ，2012年12月就任）。◎憲法−1946年11月公布，1947年５月発効。◎国会−二院制。衆議院（定員475，任期４年），参議院（定員242，任期６年）。2016年３月時点の衆議院議席分布−自由民主党290，民主・維新・無所属クラブ92，公明党35，日本共産党21，おおさか維新の会13，生活の党と山本太郎となかまたち２，社会民主党・市民連合２，無所属18，欠員２。2016年３月時点の参議院議席分布−自由民主党116，民主党・新緑風会59，公明党20，日本共産党11，おおさか維新の会７，維新の党５，日本のこころを大切にする党４，日本を元気にする会・無所属会４，社会民主党・護憲連合３，生活の党と山本太郎となかまたち３，無所属クラブ２，新党改革・無所属の会２，各派に属しない議員６。◎GDP−４兆9093億ドル（2008）。◎１人当りGDP−３万3800ドル（2007）。◎農林・漁業就業者比率−3.4％（2003）。◎平均寿命−男79.0歳，女86.0歳（2007）。◎乳児死亡率−２‰（2010）。◎識字率−100％。　　　　＊　　　　＊アジア大陸の東方に長さは3500km以上，幅は広い所で300kmにわたって北東〜南西に連なる日本列島を占める国。古くは倭(わ)，倭国などと呼ばれ，中国の《漢書》から《隋書》まではこのように表記されている。〈日本〉の国号は律令国家の成立とともに定着したとみられる。読み方は〈にほん〉〈にっぽん〉の二つがあり，1934年文部省は後者に統一することを提案した。現行憲法には〈日本国〉とある。日本の国土は，北海道，本州，四国，九州の４大島と周辺海域の諸島からなる。1968年には小笠原諸島が日本に復帰して東京都に所属，1972年には沖縄が復帰して沖縄県となった。首都は東京都。〔地形〕　日本列島の地形区分は地質構造を基準にして西南日本と東北日本に２大別され，その境界は本州中部を南北に縦断する糸魚川(いといがわ)‐静岡構造線である。西南日本はさらに内帯（北側）と外帯（南側）に分かれ，その境界は長大な断層帯の中央構造線である。地形は地殻運動が激しいため土地の起伏が大きく，多くの断層によって地塁や地溝に区切られ，全体に平地が狭小な山地形を呈する。また新しい地殻運動の結果，河岸段丘，海岸段丘，開析扇状地，隆起三角州，隆起海食台地，海岸平野などが各地に形成されている。東北日本では３列の山地が南北方向に並行に連なる。この山系には北見山地，日高山脈，奥羽山脈，三国山脈，越後山脈，関東山地などの高峻(こうしゅん)な山地と，北上高地，阿武隈高地，出羽山地などの丘陵状山地とがある。西南日本の山系では，紀伊山地，四国山地，九州山地など外帯の山地が高峻で，中国山地，丹波高地など内帯の山地は高原状を呈する。本州中央部には日本アルプスと呼ばれる飛騨山脈（北アルプス），木曾山脈（中央アルプス），赤石山脈（南アルプス）が標高3000m級の高峰をもってそびえ，日本の最高峰富士山（標高3776m）もこの地域にある。火山が多いことも日本の地形の特色で，多くの火山帯があり，最も多いのは成層火山であるが，溶岩円頂丘も多い。火山群にはカルデラが発達するものも多く，特に阿蘇山のカルデラは東西約17km，南北約25kmで世界最大の規模で知られている。　日本の河川は一般に流路が短く勾配(こうばい)が急である。したがって降水は直ちに流下して粗粒の土砂を運搬し，山地の谷口には扇状地の発達が顕著である。その付近では堆積によって河床が上昇し，天井川を作ることも多い。石狩，十勝，北上，最上，阿武隈，利根，信濃，天竜，木曾，淀，吉野，筑後などが大河川で，流域面積の最大は利根川（１万6840km²），最長の川は信濃川（幹川流路延長367km）。海岸線が複雑なことも著しい特色で，その延長は２万8000kmに及ぶ。岩手県太平洋岸，志摩半島，四国西岸，九州北西岸など出入の多いリアス海岸と，山形県，新潟県，鳥取県の日本海岸など砂浜からなる平滑な海岸とが組み合わさっている。日本の平野や盆地はきわめて小規模で，各地に散在する傾向がみられる。いずれも河川の作用による沖積平野であるが，台地と低地とからなる場合が多い。東西約140km，南北約110kmで日本最大の関東平野をはじめ，石狩，越後，濃尾，大阪，筑後などの平野がおもなものである。〔気候〕　年平均気温10〜18℃，年降水量は1000〜2500mm。ユーラシア大陸東岸の温帯に位置し南北に細長い地理的条件により次の特徴をもつ。1.同緯度の大陸西岸よりも冬寒く夏暑い（東岸気候）。2.季節風が卓越し夏は高温多湿（季節風気候）。3.多雨。春雨，梅雨，秋霖(しゅうりん)の３雨季がある。4.冬季の日本海側の大雪と太平洋側の晴天乾燥（明瞭な気候境界）。5.低気圧の通路にあたるため天気の変化が激しい（前線帯気候）。6.温帯に位置し四季の変化に富む（温帯気候）。7.南北の気候の差が大きく二つの気候帯にまたがる。8.大陸の内部に比べると海洋の影響を受けて温和（大陸度40〜50。ある程度海洋性気候）。9.台風常襲国。10.地形が複雑で盆地気候，山岳気候などが複雑に分布し，海陸風などの局地風が発達する。11.台風や梅雨による風水害をはじめ冷害，霜害など気象災害が多い。　日本の気候区分は，区分法によって異なるが，大きな境界が二つある。その一つは日本の背骨を形成する山脈で，これを境に日本海側（岸）式気候と太平洋側（岸）式気候に分けられる。両者の相違は冬季に顕著で，前者は曇った天気が続き雪が多いのに対して，後者では晴天乾燥が続く。この二つの気候の差は北海道から九州にかけて現れ，ところにより両気候が複雑に入り乱れる。もう一つの大きな境界は，ケッペンの気候区分での亜寒帯気候と温帯気候の境界，アリソフの気候区分での中緯度気団地帯と亜熱帯地帯の境界で，両者ともほぼ北緯37°〜38°の線に沿って東西に走る。ただしこの境界線は土地の高低により変形を受けている。この境界の北と南の気候の差は動植物の分布に明瞭に反映されている。〔資源〕　日本には多種多様な地下資源が賦存するが，標本的な量にとどまるものが多く，工業原料資源は国際的にみてきわめて貧弱である。まとまった産出をみるものは石灰石，硫黄，石炭，銅・鉛・亜鉛鉱石などで，近代工業に不可欠な鉄鉱石，ボーキサイト，ニッケル鉱，原油などはほとんどを輸入に依存する。石炭も原料炭（特に製鉄用の強粘結炭）の産出は少なく，産業の拡大と重化学工業化の進展につれて輸入資源の比率が急増している。かつて輸出さえしていた銅が今日では所要原鉱の大部分を海外に求めているのはその一例である。また水力資源は豊富であっても，エネルギー革命や原子力発電の実用化とともにエネルギー資源の輸入も増加の一途をたどっている。しかしこのような国内資源の貧弱さが，かえって今日国際的に最も有利な工業立地（臨海コンビナート）を形成させた事情も無視すべきではない。なお最近世界的に注目されている海岸・海底資源（大陸棚の石油資源など）の開発は日本周辺でも緒につきつつあり，成果の実現が期待されている。〔経済〕　日本経済の資本主義化は，明治維新以降，官業創設とその払下げにみられるような殖産興業の強行など，国家の政策的介入によって急速に進められた。20世紀初頭には，安価な労働力利用の上に立つ紡績，製糸などの繊維工業と，軍事的需要を基盤とする鉱山，冶金業などが確立され，日露戦争，第１次大戦を経て1930年代までには機械，化学など近代的産業も確立をみた。この間の資本の集積により主要産業における財閥の支配が完成されたが，一方，寄生地主制が支配的な非近代的農業，中小零細企業が広範に併存し，低賃金，低生活水準，膨大な潜在的失業など，日本経済の二重構造といわれる特性が胚胎された。第２次大戦で日本経済は壊滅的な打撃を受けたが，戦後は驚異的な復興・発展を遂げ，1956年の《経済白書》は〈もはや戦後ではない〉と宣言し，1968年には国民総生産で西ドイツを抜き，米・ソに次ぐ世界第３位を占めるに至った。戦後の経済発展は，農地改革，財閥解体と集中排除，独占禁止法制定などの経済民主化を出発点とし，朝鮮戦争で得た巨額の利潤による資本蓄積，技術革新の展開による設備投資を軸とする1960年代の高度経済成長に進んできたものであるが，その実質成長率は年平均10％を超える，世界に例をみない高いものであった。　このような高度成長は一つには民間企業設備投資が常に国民総生産の20％前後を占め，その比重が外国に比べてきわめて高かったこと，また国民総生産が大きくなったとはいえ，１人当り国民所得は小さく（1968年で世界19位），それだけ発展の余地が大きかったこと，および輸出の伸長などにささえられてきたといえる。この高度成長の間，主要産業での大企業への生産の集中は一層進行した。またかつての恒常的な労働力過剰状態から史上初めての労働力不足への転換が招来されるに至り，これをてことする農業の近代化，中小企業の合理化が促進され，二重構造の解消が進んだ。しかし高度成長の結果，先進国中で最高の消費者物価上昇，社会資本の不足，大都市の過密と産業公害，反面での過疎地帯の生成など，高度成長のひずみと称される国民生活上のアンバランスが顕著になった。　1970年代に入ると，主要国間の経済関係の変化のためドルを基軸とする通貨安定制度（IMF）が崩れ，変動為替相場制に移行，世界経済システムの転換期を迎えた。また先進諸国の産業はマイクロエレクトロニクス（ME）技術を中心とするきわめて速いテンポの技術革新の時代に突入した。そこに起こったのが1973年の石油危機で，他の先進諸国と同様，日本経済も不況とインフレの同時進行（スタグフレーション）の状況に陥った。これによる高度経済成長の終焉は多分野に大きな影響を与えたが，その一つは財政である。税収が激減する一方，景気対策のための財政支出は増大したため，多額の赤字国債が発行され，累積する財政赤字が課題となった。国鉄，電電公社，専売公社の分割・民営化や行政改革の方針，1988年の消費税導入はここに発している。また石油危機は企業を雇用調整に向かわせたが，労働組合は賃上げ要求抑制により雇用の確保をはかり，労使協調路線を選択，戦後労働運動に大きな変化をもたらした。さらに省エネルギー化の進行は産業構造の転換をも促進した。製造業における省エネ型の機械工業の比重の増大などがそれだが，とくにエネルギー消費の少ないサービス業人口は，この時期前後からの女性の労働力市場への大量の参入ともあいまって増大した。日本経済はこうした石油危機後に対応する産業調整を迅速に実現したが，これを支えたのはME技術革命を活用した労働生産性の飛躍的な向上であり，またこの技術により日本は機械製品を中心に輸出を急速に伸ばした。これは一方，自動車，半導体などの貿易摩擦をうみ（〈日米自動車協議〉〈日米半導体協定〉参照），対外収支の不均衡は1980年代後半から急速な円高をもたらした。この円高などを背景に，1980年代後半株式や土地，ビルなどへの投機が異常に活発化し，株価・地価の急騰をよんだ。この過剰な〈投資の泡（バブル）〉（バブル経済）は1990年には破裂し，株価・地価は急落，投資家・企業への深刻なダメージ，巨額の不良債権と金融機関への不信を残し（〈不良債権処理問題〉〈破綻金融機関〉），以後21世紀初頭まで不況を長びかせてきた。一方，経済のグローバル化のなかで進展する金融の自由化（〈日本版ビッグバン〉），安価な労働力を求めての企業の海外進出と国内の産業空洞化，雇用を求める外国人労働者の流入など，多様な課題が現れている。さらに構造改革にともなって貧富格差・地方格差が拡大するなか，行政改革，年金制度や高齢化社会などの問題も含めて，日本経済は難しい局面に至っている。〔政治〕　日本国憲法は主権在民を宣言し，天皇は日本国および日本国民統合の象徴であってその地位は国民の総意に基づくと定めている（憲法前文，憲法１条）。統治組織は三権分立の原理に基づく。立法権は国権の最高機関たる国会に属し，国会はいずれも公選の代表で組織する衆議院と参議院で構成する（憲法41条〜43条）。行政権は内閣総理大臣を長とする内閣に属し，内閣は行政権の行使について国会に責任を負う（憲法65条，66条）。司法権は最高裁判所および法定の下級裁判所に属し，裁判所は違憲立法審査権をもつ（憲法76条，81条）。中央行政機関は１府10省からなり，地方行政は都道府県および市町村が当たる。治安維持は警察が担当し，中央に国家公安委員会と警察庁，地方に都道府県公安委員会と都道府県警察が置かれる。防衛関係は自衛隊が担当し，防衛省の統括下に陸上・海上・航空自衛隊がある。主要政党は1955年―1993年のあいだ続いた〈55年体制〉のもとでは，保守・革新の二大政党である自由民主党，日本社会党を中軸に，民社党，日本共産党，公明党などであるが，1990年代に多党化と再編がすすみ，新党さきがけ，新進党（民社党も合流），民主党などが登場し，社会党は1996年社会民主党と改称した。さらに新進党が1997年末に解党した後，諸党派の再編が進み，1999年には自由民主党，自由党，公明党による〈自自公〉連立政権が出現するにいたった。2000年には自由党から連立政権維持グループが保守党（のち保守新党）として分離し，〈自公保〉連立に変わった。その後2003年の衆院選の前後に，自由党は民主党に加わり，保守新党は自民党に合流し，野党としての民主党の重みが増した。2009年８月の総選挙では民主党が圧勝，民主党・社民党・国民新党による連立政権で歴史的な政権交代を果たしたが，2012年12月の総選挙で民主党は自民党に大敗を喫し，自民・公明が政権を奪還，自公連立による安倍晋三内閣が発足した。〔歴史〕　日本は更新世には大陸と陸続きで，大陸と同様な旧石器文化が展開していたが，沖積世には列島となって，縄文(じょうもん)文化と呼ばれる独自の新石器文化に移行した（縄文時代）。前３−前４世紀ころに，金属器の併用と水稲耕作とを特徴とする弥生(やよい)文化が西日本に起こって東日本へ波及すると（弥生時代），穀物蓄積や灌漑(かんがい)用水統制などが原因となって階級が分化し，各地に司祭者を王とする小国家が成立した。それらはやがて邪馬台(やまたい)国のような地方国家に成長したが，３世紀後半から豪族の連合政権である大和政権が日本統一を始めつつ，４世紀後半から南朝鮮の加羅諸国との外交関係もあった。新たな支配者の権威の象徴として古墳が各地に築造され，大陸や朝鮮から産業技術や漢字が取り入れられて古墳文化が成立した（古墳時代）。６世紀末に仏教が伝来し，７世紀前半の飛鳥(あすか)時代には日本最初の仏教文化が起こった。大和朝廷は隋・唐の東方進出に圧迫されて国政改革の必要を生じ，７世紀後半には大化改新や壬申(じんしん)の乱を経て，中国の制度をまね，天皇を政治的・宗教的中心とする中央集権の律令国家が形成された。８−９世紀の奈良時代〜平安時代初期の文化は大陸文化の影響が顕著で，その傾向は以後も長く続いたが，平安初期には仮名も作られ，中期以後は独自の美的感覚が京都の朝廷貴族の間に生まれて国風文化と呼ばれた。政治的にも律令国家が変質して摂関政治，続いて院政が，荘園を経済的基盤として展開した。　全国各地の豪族は中央集権の衰退に伴い武士に成長，荘園の管理権を握り，12世紀末には源頼朝が鎌倉に幕府を開いた。鎌倉幕府は13世紀に承久(じょうきゅう)の乱や文永・弘安の役で京都朝廷をしのぐ実力を示したが，荘園領主や在地領主を把握(はあく)しきれず，14世紀前半に倒れた。鎌倉時代には奈良・平安以来の仏教をうけて今日の日本仏教の諸宗派が発達した。南北朝時代の動乱を経て，14世紀の中ごろ京都に足利氏の室町幕府が開かれた。この室町時代には守護は領主化して守護大名に成長し，公家と武家の文化が融合して東山文化が栄えた。しかし応仁・文明の乱後，守護大名を打倒した戦国大名が各地に割拠する戦国時代となり，古代貴族は没落し幕府権力は衰退した。16世紀中ごろキリスト教と鉄砲が伝わり，キリスト教は宣教師の精力的な布教で浸透，鉄砲は戦国大名の戦術・築城法に決定的な影響を与えた。この戦乱の中から覇権を握った織田信長，次いで豊臣秀吉が天下を統一，太閤(たいこう)検地によって新しい徴税体系と農村の支配体制が確立し，刀狩によって兵農分離が行われた。織豊政権のもとで華麗な安土桃山時代の文化が生まれた。　戦国大名の最後の覇者徳川家康は農村収奪の上に統一国家を再建，江戸幕府を開いた。幕府は幕藩体制のもとに士農工商の身分を固定し，キリスト教禁止を口実に鎖国を行い，のちには儒教的教化も利用しつつ全国支配を強化した。江戸時代の太平の永続は交通・商工業の躍進，町人の台頭，貨幣経済の発展，多数の都市の出現をもたらし，江戸と大坂を中心に元禄文化，文化文政時代の文化が栄えた。しかし，経済の実権を握る町人の力は，一方で武士の権威を失墜させ，農民の窮乏化とたび重なる災害は百姓一揆(いっき)を頻発(ひんぱつ)させ，幕藩体制は内部から崩壊し始めた。北方には18世紀半ばからロシアが南下してくるが，幕府は蝦夷地(えぞち)を19世紀初めまでに直轄地として内国に編入した。19世紀中期以降は欧米列強が東洋に進出して日本に開国を迫り，下級武士による尊王攘夷(じょうい)運動，倒幕運動が激化して，ついに260余年にわたる江戸幕府は倒れ，明治維新を迎える。　1868年の王政復古によって成立した明治政府は京都朝廷の天皇を頂点とする公家と諸侯，西南雄藩の下級武士を中心とする合体政権であった。彼らは戊辰(ぼしん)戦争で旧幕府勢力を打破し，首都を江戸に移して東京と改め，版籍奉還，廃藩置県により中央集権体制を強化した。この間，17世紀以来薩摩藩の支配下で，日清両属の状態にあった琉球を〈琉球処分〉により沖縄県として統合し，また蝦夷地を北海道と改称してアイヌの同化政策をすすめた。こうして政府は文明開化，殖産興業政策を推進し，軍隊・警察をはじめ電信，鉄道，各種工場（官営工業）など官営事業を開始した。1873年の地租改正条例は私的土地所有権の確認と同時に政府の財政的基礎を形成する契機となった。1877年の西南戦争を最後に明治初年以来の不平士族の反乱は鎮圧された。同時に自由民権運動が全国に展開，政府も1881年，10年後に国会を開くという詔書を発布した。政府の憲法制定準備はひそかに進行したのち，1889年の大日本帝国憲法発布，1890年の国会開設により天皇制の支配体制は完成した。日清戦争の結果，日本は台湾を領有し，またその賠償金を基礎に金本位制度を樹立して，資本主義経済体制を整えた。朝鮮・満州をめぐるロシアとの対立が深まり，日露戦争によって日本の朝鮮・南満州に対する支配権を確立，1910年日韓併合を強行した。国内における資本主義の発展に伴い，階級対立は深まり，社会主義思想も広まったが，政府は大逆事件などによって社会主義思想を弾圧した。しかし，1913年憲政擁護運動で民衆は初めて内閣を倒した。以後〈大正デモクラシー〉のなかで民主主義思想は広まり普通選挙，女子参政権などの要求が，労働者の要求と結びついて展開した。米騒動は，民衆の経済的要求が政治行動となった画期的事件であった。　第１次大戦に際し日本は二十一ヵ条要求を中国につきつけ，こののち，中国問題と軍備縮小問題をめぐって英，米との対立は決定的となった。1927年の金融恐慌から大恐慌にかけて（昭和恐慌），日本資本主義の矛盾は最大限に露呈し，同時に中国への帝国主義武力侵略が開始された。1931年満州事変により，日本の国際的孤立は深まり，同時に共産主義・社会主義思想や労働者・農民の運動に対する弾圧は治安維持法によって強化された。五・一五事件，二・二六事件を通じてファシズム体制は強まり，1936年日独防共協定（翌年，日独伊防共協定）によって日本は反共戦線へ荷担した。1937年日中戦争の開始により，日本の戦争体制は決定的となり，あらゆる面で統制が強化され，国家総動員法はその支柱となった。1940年日独伊三国同盟，1941年日ソ中立条約を経て同年12月８日太平洋戦争に突入した。日本は緒戦の勝利にもかかわらず，本格的な反攻が始まると後退を続け，沖縄の戦，本土空襲，広島・長崎への原子爆弾投下により壊滅的な打撃を受け，ソ連が参戦するに及んで1945年８月ポツダム宣言を受諾した。1946年日本国憲法の公布によって戦争放棄，基本的人権の尊重の原則が確立され，民主主義国家として再出発することとなった。〔戦後の歩みから現在へ〕　1945年８月15日日本は降伏し，太平洋戦争は終結した。以後のいわゆる戦後史は，日本の再建と発展に決定的な影響力をもつ米国の対日政策と深くかかわり，おおむね以下の各期に区分してとらえることができる。　第１期（1945年―1947年）。日本は降伏と同時に連合国軍の占領下に置かれ，東京には占領軍総司令部（GHQ）が設置され，米国のマッカーサーが連合国最高司令官となった。実質的には米軍の単独占領で，占領政策も米国が単独に決定した。11ヵ国代表からなり占領政策決定機関たる極東委員会も，最高司令官の諮問機関たる対日理事会も実質的権限はなかった。統治方式は日本政府を介して行う間接統治であった。この時期には軍国主義一掃と民主主義的諸制度の制定など大変革が行われ，天皇人間宣言，極東国際軍事裁判の開廷，財閥解体，農地改革，新教育制度の施行があり，1946年11月新憲法が公布された。また平和と民主化を求める革新勢力の伸張は著しく，そのために幣原喜重郎内閣は総辞職に追いこまれた。　第２期（1947年―1954年）。この時期に入ると占領軍当局は保守勢力擁護の態度を明確化した。1947年史上最大といわれる二・一スト計画はGHQの命令で未発に終わり，以後労働運動は大きく転換した。中国大陸における蒋介石政権の相次ぐ敗退に対処するため，1948年米国陸軍長官のローヤル声明を転機として米国は日本非軍事化政策を放棄し，反共の防壁として米国の傘の下での日本の自立化を進めた。1949年総選挙で民主自由党が圧倒的勝利を収め，長期にわたる保守党政権の支配が始まった。1950年朝鮮戦争を機にGHQはレッドパージをもって革新勢力を弾圧，共産党を事実上非合法化した。他方，米国の日本再軍備化方針により警察予備隊が設置された。また朝鮮戦争激化に伴い日本は米軍の兵站(へいたん)基地となり，いわゆる特需景気によって経済は復興した。1951年サンフランシスコ講和条約が結ばれ，1952年その発効により独立が回復された。しかしそれはソ連・中国などを除いたいわゆる片面講和であり，また同時に調印された日米安全保障条約により米軍は引き続き駐留することとなった。次いで中華民国（台湾）と日華平和条約が締結され，いわゆるサンフランシスコ体制が確立した。講和条約締結期から片面講和・基地反対をめぐり平和運動や労働運動が高まり，その情勢の中で講和条約発効直後の1952年メーデー事件が起きた。　第３期（1954年―1960年）。1954年日米相互防衛援助協定（MSA協定）が締結され，日本の再軍備化は進み，自衛隊が生まれた。1955年保守合同による自由民主党の成立と，左右両派の統一による日本社会党の成立によってできた保守対革新の二大政党制に移行した（55年体制）。この時期に自民党は〈憲法の自主的改正〉を唱え，憲法調査会を1956年発足させている。経済面では外資の大量流入もあっていわゆる神武景気が起こり，後の所得倍増政策の素地を作った。一方，破防法・教育２法制定に対する反対運動，本土・沖縄における基地強化反対運動，ビキニ水爆実験に端を発した原水爆禁止運動が全国的に広まった。1956年日ソ国交が回復され，引き続き国連加盟が実現，IMFや国際復興開発銀行（世界銀行）にも加入し，国際社会への復帰が実現した。1958年に始まった安保条約改定交渉は大きく国内をゆるがす問題となり，全国的な安保反対運動（安保闘争）が展開された。しかし政府は1960年新安保条約を成立させ，日本の政治体制は新しい段階に入った。一方，この運動のなかで市民運動という新たな政治参加の形態が定着しはじめた。　第４期（1960年―1970年）。この時期は米ソ両大国の冷戦状態から平和共存体制への転換が国際的な背景となっている。ケネディ政権の出現により米国の対日政策は手直しされ，両国の結合が強められた。日本はアジアにおける地位の回復をめざし，東南アジア諸国への進出も顕著となったが，それは1965年の日韓条約成立によりほぼ完成された。独占資本の地歩は強化され，日本経済の国際的地位は高められ，海外進出が急速に伸びた。1964年のOECD加盟，東南アジア開発閣僚会議提唱，1965年のアジア開発銀行設立提唱，1966年のアジア太平洋閣僚会議開催など一連の動きがその現れであった。しかし1960年代の経済躍進は，ベトナム戦争に伴う特需に大きく起因していることからも明らかなように，対米依存の傾向が強い。この間日韓条約阻止闘争の失敗により革新勢力の運動は転機を迎えた。一方では組織分裂が起こり，他方では軍事基地撤去・沖縄復帰運動や青年・学生の学園改革・反戦運動など反体制運動が盛んになった。1965年以後の産業・貿易の驚異的な発展は国際経済における日本の地位を不動のものとした。また日米パートナーシップのスローガンのもとに，政治的にもいわゆる日本の自主・自立化が強力に進められた。　第５期（1970年―1989年）。1971年のドル・ショック，1973年の石油危機，さらに生産の大規模化と都市化による公害等により高度経済成長は終わった。1970年代の大幅な財政支出がもたらした財政危機は深刻であり，国債の累積による長期債務残高は一般会計規模の２倍を超えた。政府は1981年臨時行政調査会を設置し，財政再建・行政改革に取り組み始めた。政権は1980年，1986年と衆参同日選挙で大勝した自民党が担当しつづけ，電電公社や国鉄の民営化を実施した。これは1980年代に進んだ労働組合の再編（1989年〈連合〉結成など）にも大きな影響を与えた。1980年代後半のリクルート事件，大型消費税の導入などによって政治不信は拡大し，1989年には再び多党化，参議院では与野党が逆転し，与野党伯仲の状況が生まれた。　第６期（1990年―）。1980年代末−1990年代初めの東欧革命・ソ連解体による冷戦体制の崩壊は全世界に大きな影響を与えた。そのような状況下で1992年PKO協力法成立により，国連の枠組みの下で自衛隊がカンボジアに出動し，いわば戦後初の海外派兵となった。1993年夏の衆院選の結果，自民党が過半数を割って非自民の連立政権が誕生し，ここに〈55年体制〉は崩壊した。この時の細川護煕内閣により小選挙区比例代表並立制が導入された。1994年には自民党・社会党・新党さきがけによる連立政権で村山社会党内閣が成立し，村山は社会党の基本政策であった安保廃棄・自衛隊違憲などを放棄した。この間に多党化のなかで政党再編がすすみ，新進党，民主党が発足し，社会党は社会民主党と改称。1996年秋の衆院選では自民党がほぼ半数を獲得した。1980年代後半以降，外交・軍事面では，ひきつづき米国との連携を強め西側諸国の一員としての外交政策を推進してきたが，ロシアとの北方領土問題，米国・EU諸国との輸出増大による経済摩擦，東南アジア諸国連合との協調，沖縄基地問題など問題は多く残されている。また，民主化が進む周辺アジア諸国の人びとから〈戦後補償〉の要求が国家レベルとは別に提起され，日本および日本国民のあり方が問われている。国内的には，外交とも絡む経済面での〈規制緩和〉問題が一貫して提起されているが，高齢化社会へ向けての福祉行政の充実，原発事故等の公害・自然破壊・環境破壊の防止，過疎・過密，地価高騰などの都市問題と地域振興，高度情報社会に対応した産業再編，農産物の輸入自由化に対応する農業対策，これらの施策を実行するための行財政改革や政党の政治倫理の確立等々，問題は山積している。長期に及ぶ不況の克服や切迫した金融再編を緊急の課題として抱えつつ，これらの問題に対応する過程で，1999年に小渕恵三内閣は，ガイドライン（日米防衛協力のための指針）関連法，国旗国歌法を成立させるなど，国論を二分するテーマを強引に押し通す手法を取った。また，2001年には中央省庁等改革基本法が施行され，内閣府の発足，財務省（旧大蔵省）と金融庁の分離など，中央行政機関の変革がなされた。こうしてグローバリゼーションが進むなかで，21世紀の日本の進路が問われている。2001年に登場した小泉純一郎内閣は〈聖域なき構造改革〉を唱え，また2002年には〈日朝平壌宣言〉により日朝国交回復交渉に着手する一方，米国での〈9.11事件〉以後，2001年〈テロ対策特別措置法〉を制定，イラク戦争に際し2003年〈イラク復興支援特別措置法〉を成立させた。また〈有事法制〉も定め，翌年自衛隊をイラクに派遣するなど，戦後日本のコースは大きな転換点へとさしかかった。2005年，衆議院の憲法調査会報告書は９条問題などで改憲の方向を盛り込んだ。他方では，ASEAN＋３（中国・日本・韓国）から展開した〈東アジア共同体〉構想が議論される状況の下で，国連安保理常任理事国への日本の立候補問題などとも関連して中国で反日デモが激化。韓国では歴史教科書問題，竹島問題，靖国参拝問題などが連動して，日韓関係も困難な局面にあり，日朝交渉は膠着状態である。2006年９月，小泉長期政権を引き継いだ安倍晋三内閣は，新憲法の制定や教育の抜本改革に取り組む姿勢を明確に打ち出した。しかし，グローバル化と構造改革による貧富格差・地方格差の拡大のなか，安倍晋三内閣，福田康夫内閣といずれも支持率低迷による在任期間一年未満の自民・公明連立政権が続いた。さらに麻生太郎内閣では，2008年の米国金融危機に端を発する世界同時不況の直撃を受けた。2009年８月の総選挙では民主党が圧勝，民主党・社民党・国民新党による連立政権が発足したが，鳩山由紀夫内閣，菅直人内閣，野田佳彦内閣とめまぐるしく交替。沖縄基地問題，デフレによる経済の長期停滞，さらに2011年３月東日本大震災が発生し，それに伴う福島第一原発の事故も発生。こうした事態に加えて，日中・日韓関係などの東アジア外交など，内外の重大課題に民主党政権は応えることができないまま，2012年12月野田佳彦内閣は衆議院を解散した。民主党は2012年12月の総選挙で自民党に大敗，自民・公明に政権を奪還され，自公連立による安倍晋三内閣が発足した。経済再生を最優先課題としたアノベミクスの提唱や積極的平和主義をかかげた政権公約でもある憲法改正に取り組む姿勢を鮮明にした。日本は，政治・外交のみならず経済・社会のありようも含め大きな転換点を迎えている。
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