Korean Art

Japanese: 朝鮮美術 - ちょうせんびじゅつ

Korea, which was in the Chinese cultural sphere, was also strongly influenced by China in terms of art, but it has shown its own unique development that reflects the climate and ethnic characteristics. Compared to Japan, which was also under Chinese influence, the peninsula has little rain and is dry, so there is a lack of good quality wood, but instead is blessed with stone, clay, and metal resources, so there are many excellent stone structures, stone Buddhas, pottery, and metal crafts.

[Shinichi Nagai]

The origins of Korean art

It has been believed with a high degree of certainty that the prehistoric period of the Korean Peninsula dates back to the Paleolithic period. However, since 1973, Paleolithic sites have been excavated one after another, and the recent excavation at Mungok-ri (Seokseong-myeon, Danyang-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do, South Korea) has attracted the attention of academics, with over 20,000 artifacts and 47 stone tool manufacturing sites confirmed. This site was discovered during a survey of the Chungju Dam construction area, and is the largest single site on the Korean Peninsula in terms of area, proving that it dates to the middle to late Paleolithic period.

Neolithic ruins and relics have been discovered in various places, and it is said that the upper limit of the period probably dates back to around 3000 BC. A pottery relic that indicates this period is comb-patterned pottery, which spread from Siberia. Comb-patterned pottery generally has a simple round or pointed bottom shape, and includes deep bowls, jars, plates, and bowls. The designs are mainly geometric designs applied to the rim, body, or edges of the base using a simple comb- or comb-like tool, and when the details are examined, there are differences between the pottery excavated in northeast Korea and that in south Korea, and it is noteworthy that there are similarities with pottery discovered in the Siberian coastal region.

After the comb-patterned pottery was created the plain pottery, which is an indicator of the Bronze Age on the Korean Peninsula. The pottery surface was painted with a reddish-brown pigment (iron oxide) and then polished, and is said to have originated in the painted pottery of northern China, centered around Gansu Province, but it is particularly noteworthy that the technical prototype of Korean pottery, which is rich in mineral resources, was already being created at this time. During the period of the comb-patterned pottery, people were still in the realm of primitive agriculture, and hunting and fishing were thought to have been the basis of life, but by the time of the reddish-brown plain pottery, it can be inferred that a fairly large-scale agricultural lifestyle had taken hold.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Sculpture

At present, there are no prehistoric relics with artistic value comparable to Japanese clay figurines and clay masks. Around the 4th century, during the Three Kingdoms period, small clay figurines of people, horses, tigers, water birds, buffalo, frogs, and other creatures have been discovered in ancient tombs in Silla, and a vessel in the shape of a mounted warrior unearthed at the Kinreizuka Tomb in Gyeongju around the end of the 5th century shows the simple, human-like expression of the ancient Korean people, but the handling of clay and the simple, clear sense of form would later blossom in pottery.

Buddhism was introduced from China to Goguryeo in 372 and Baekje in 384, and is thought to have been introduced to Silla around the same time. After that, sculpture developed mainly in Buddhist statues. However, to date, there are no relics of Buddhist art thought to have been created in the 4th or 5th centuries, and the oldest surviving statue with an inscription is a gilt-bronze standing Buddha statue from Goguryeo in 539 (National Museum of Korea, Seoul). This statue, discovered in 1963 in Hachon-ri, Daeui-myeon, Uiryeong-gun, South Gyeongsang Province, has the inscription "Rakryang of Goryeo" and shows clear signs of imitation of Northern Wei Buddhas from the early 6th century. In addition, the gilt-bronze statue of Muryoju (Amida statue) with the inscription Shinbo (571), said to have been excavated in Hwanghae Province, is also presumed to be from Goguryeo based on the name of the donor in the inscription, but it is in the single-light triad style that follows the Eastern Wei style.

Of the three kingdoms, Goguryeo was geographically the closest to China and was most strongly influenced by Han culture, so it was the most advanced in the production of Buddhist statues, and Old Silla and Baekje followed in the footsteps of Goguryeo's advanced culture. However, Baekje's Buddhist culture flourished most splendidly in later times. The temples built in its capitals of Gongju and Buyeo were quite large, and it is thought that some of the statues were quite advanced, but today only small stone statues and small gilt bronze statues remain, so it is not possible to get a sense of the overall state of the region. Meanwhile, in Old Silla, Buddhist culture flourished in Gyeongju, and large temples such as Hwangnyongsa Temple, with its nine-story pagoda, were built in 552, and recent excavations have given us a glimpse of the grandeur of the time. The gilt bronze half-seated pensive statues that are said to have been excavated from Yeongju and Andong areas in the north of Gyeongju are small, but it is noteworthy that they are heavily influenced by Goguryeo Buddhas. Thus, statues in the Three Kingdoms period up until the mid-6th century were modeled on those of Goguryeo, but in the second half of the 6th century, Baekje established relations with the Southern Liang Dynasty of China, and although there are few remains, we can see that the Southern Dynasty style was adopted through the Liang Dynasty. Old Silla inherited the Goguryeo style from the first half of the period.

There are a considerable number of Maitreya statues in pensive pose made on the Korean peninsula from the first half of the 6th century, and the one excavated in Pyongyang, now in a private collection, is thought to be the oldest of these. The popularity of this style of Buddhist statue is thought to be due to the influence of Goguryeo. The National Museum of Korea in Seoul has two gilt bronze Maitreya statues in pensive pose that are representative of Buddhist sculpture from the second half of the 6th century. Both are life-size masterpieces, and although there are various accounts of the origins of both statues and nothing is known for certain, it is clear at a glance that there is a large difference in their styles. One of them in particular bears a strong resemblance to a wooden Maitreya statue in pensive pose at Koryuji Temple in Kyoto, known as the "Treasured Maitreya." How to interpret the stylistic differences between these two statues is an important point in determining the genealogy of ancient Korean sculpture, so we should avoid hasty conclusions in the current situation where sufficient data is not available, but if we were to speculate, the statue similar to the Koryuji statue has a simple and gentle style overall, which well represents the characteristics of Baekje art. In contrast, the other statue has a solemn appearance in the design of the jeweled crown and the expression of the clothing, which shows one aspect of the tendency of Old Silla statues. The fact that there are many gilt bronze Buddhas, including these two statues, whose place of origin and provenance are unknown is a major obstacle to understanding ancient Korean sculpture, but in comparison, stone Buddhas and rock-carved Buddhas (imitation rock-carved Buddhas) provide important hints and many of them are artistically excellent.

In the 7th century, Old Silla and Baekje each followed their own path in statue making, and new stone Buddha statues have been discovered that prove this. One is the Amitabha Triad at the Namsan-dong Grottoes in Gunwi County, located halfway along the national highway connecting Gyeongju and Andong in North Gyeongsang Province, and the other is a rock-carved triad in Unsan-myeon, Seosan City, South Chungcheong Province, the former home of Baekje. The difference in style between the two clearly shows the trends in statue making in Old Silla and Baekje. In particular, one of the attendants of the rock-carved Buddha in Seosan is in the form of a half-seated pensive figure, and is filled with a calm and mellow feeling overall. And the overflowing smile seen at the corner of its mouth has been dubbed the "Baekje smile" by a Korean art historian, and it most clearly expresses the ideals of Baekje Buddha sculpture.

The Unified Silla period from 677 onwards corresponds to the Tang dynasty in China. During this period, when Tang culture was actively adopted, Buddhist culture flourished and stone, gilt bronze and clay statues were actively produced, many of which still remain. Among the early remains, the brick statue of the Four Heavenly Kings (unearthed at the site of Shitennosa Temple in Gyeongju) and the half-carved gilt bronze statue of the Four Heavenly Kings attached to the relic container for the west pagoda at the site of Gameunsa Temple (founded around 682) are noteworthy, and show a close relationship with Tang dynasty sculpture. However, it is the stone Buddhas of Namsan in Gyeongju and Seokguram Grotto in Dongtohamsan that convey the essence of Unified Silla Buddhist art, and among the many stone Buddhas of Namsan, the half-seated bodhisattva statue at Shinseonam, carved half-carved into the huge rock face, is particularly outstanding. The Seokguram Grotto's principal image, a seated stone statue of Shaka Nyorai and its group of attendant statues, are sculptures that embody the 200 years of tradition and unique sensibilities of Silla artisans, and are imbued with the majestic national spirit within their elegant and refined form.

In the second half of the 8th century, small gilt bronze Buddhas (Silla gilt bronze Buddhas) began to be made, with distinctive styles in the expression of the drapery and the appearance of the figures, but the lineage of their formation is still unclear. In addition to Buddhist statues, Silla sculpture also features stone reliefs inlaid around tombs. These are personified animals of the Chinese zodiac and made as guardian deities, and can be said to be of an excellent quality not found in China. In the 9th century, the style of Buddhist statues gradually declined, but iron Buddhas such as the Vairocana Buddha at Jeongrinji Temple and Tohiganji Temple were actively produced, and this trend continued until the beginning of the Goryeo period. Goryeo also made Buddhism the state religion, and Buddhist art saw new developments in various areas, but the Buddhist statues were stylistically unremarkable and did not surpass those of the previous era.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Painting

When we look at the history of painting in Korea, the existing works are limited to the following three periods: the murals in the ancient tombs of Goguryeo (4th to 7th centuries), Buddhist paintings from the end of the Goryeo period (13th to 14th centuries), and paintings from the Yi dynasty (14th century onwards). Other than these, there are very few surviving pieces from Baekje, Old Silla, Unified Silla, and the first half of the Goryeo period, and the 500 years from the 8th to 12th centuries are almost a blank.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Murals from the ancient tombs of Goguryeo

Mural tombs from the Goguryeo period are found mainly in Pyongyang, Nampo, South Pyongan Province, and South Hwanghae Province in North Korea, as well as Ji'an City, Jilin Province, China, and according to the "Collection of Historical Materials on Murals of Goguryeo Tombs" (1985, published by the Executive Committee for the Goguryeo Cultural Exhibition), there are 83 of them in total. The oldest mural is found in Angak Tomb No. 3 (South Hwanghae Province), which bears the date Yonghe 13 (357) and an inscription on the buried person's Dongsu. Other known murals include the Shogunzuka Tomb (Jian City, Jilin Province), the Jiangxi Great Tombs, and Tokko-ri (all in South Pyongan Province). The murals' initial subjects were portraits of people and genres, and in the second half of the 4th century, images of the four gods (Blue Dragon, Vermilion Bird, White Tiger, and Black Tortoise) were added to the figures, and by the mid-6th century, images of the four gods painted directly onto the walls of the stone chambers became the norm. The style was strongly influenced by the end of the Eastern Jin dynasty and the Northern Wei dynasty in China, but they are important as surviving examples of the oldest paintings in East Asia, and in recent years their significance has been widely noted due to their similarities to the murals on the Takamatsuzuka Tomb from Japan's Asuka period.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Goryeo Buddhist Paintings

Influenced by Chinese Song Dynasty paintings, many Buddhist paintings were created during the Goryeo period, making full use of delicate techniques, but the surviving pieces are concentrated in the latter period and are few in number. However, some of the paintings that have been passed down to Japan include the "Amida Nyorai Statue" at the Bank of Japan, the "Maitreya Gesho Sutra Hensozu" at Chion-in Temple in Kyoto and Shinno-in Temple in Wakayama, the "Amida Nyorai Seated Statue" at Nezu Museum in Tokyo and Gyokurin-in Temple in Kyoto, the "Yoryu Kannon" at Sensoji Temple in Tokyo and Hase-dera Temple in Nara, the "Amida Triad Statue" at MOA Museum of Art in Shizuoka and Matsuo-dera Temple in Kyoto, and the "Koso Daishi Statue" at Todai-ji Temple in Nara, giving us a glimpse of Goryeo Buddhist paintings, characterized by beautiful stylized expressions. As for aesthetic paintings other than Buddhist paintings, there is a record that Li Ning, who was active from the reign of Emperor Renzong to Emperor Yizong (1123-1170), was highly praised by Emperor Huizong for his skilled work when he visited Song, which suggests that there was a strong inclination towards China.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Yi Dynasty Painting

During the Yi dynasty, which lasted from the end of the 14th century to the beginning of the 20th century, Confucianism was adopted as the state religion, replacing the previous Buddhism, and as a result, art underwent major changes. Painting developed under the influence of the Ming dynasty in China in its early period and the Qing dynasty in its later period, but ink painting, which began to be favored from the Goryeo period under the influence of the Song and Yuan dynasties, became popular as a hobby for literati. Meanwhile, at the official Painting Academy (Togasho), professional painters produced realistic paintings for appreciation, and representative artists include An Jian (active in the mid-15th century) in the early period, Jeong (1676-1759), and Kim Hong-do (1745-?). Portraits were also widely painted by artists and literati due to Confucian ancestor worship, and these show a unique style of depicting the person's entire figure from the front, filling the entire picture frame.

In addition to these orthodox paintings for the upper classes, a huge number of works were produced to meet the demand for paintings from the common people. These vividly express the everyday life and emotions of the common people, and are commonly known as "folk paintings." In addition to portraits, flower and bird paintings, and stationery drawings, there are also character paintings in which the characters for Confucian virtues (loyalty, filial piety, faith, courtesy, etc.) are written in a unique style and decorated with flowers, animals, etc., all of which are full of symbolism associated with folk beliefs. The unique beauty of the forms created by anonymous folk painters still appeals to modern people, and in Japan they were introduced in the folk art movement led by Yanagi Muneyoshi and others, becoming widely known.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Crafts

Metalwork

Blessed with metal resources, the Korean Peninsula has had a long history of excellent metalwork. Gorgeous golden grave goods have been excavated from the tombs of Goguryeo, Baekje, Gaya, and Silla during the Three Kingdoms period. In particular, the golden crowns and other grave goods excavated from the Golden Tomb, Golden Bell Tomb, Seobong Tomb, and Cheonmachong Tomb in Gyeongju, and the golden crown ornaments and gold and silver decorative fittings of the king and queen discovered in the Tomb of King Muryeong (Gongju City, South Chungcheong Province) in 1971, are a collection of the finest craftsmanship from both Silla and Baekje, and while they are filled with elegance, the differences in the styles of the two kingdoms can be seen.

Another representative example of Korean casting technology is the temple bell. Based on the temple bells of the Tang Dynasty in China, they were widely cast during the Unified Silla period, but have their own unique style known as Korean bells. The Bongdeoksa Temple Bell (King Seongdeok Divine Bell, Emire's Bell) at the National Museum of Gyeongju is an elegant giant bell measuring 3.33 meters in height and 2.27 meters in diameter, with extremely delicate and elegant designs of the Hosangge pattern and flying celestial beings cast on the surface. Later, Korean bells were made in the Goryeo and Yi dynasties following this style, but they gradually became smaller and cruder. Many Korean bells were brought to Japan from the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, and over 40 still remain at Jogu Shrine in Fukui Prefecture and other places.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Ceramics

During the Three Kingdoms period, hard grey earthenware was produced with the introduction of Chinese technology. In particular, pictographic earthenware depicting horse-riding figures and auspicious animals is a good indication of the strong and generous character of the Goryeo people. In the mid-10th century during the Goryeo period, celadon technology from the Yuezhou kilns of the Five Dynasties in China was introduced, and the firing of Goryeo celadon began. This technology made remarkable advances, and in the 12th century, Goryeo pottery reached its peak with the invention of jadeite celadon, a deep blue glaze with a hint of grey, and inlaid celadon, with intricate patterns created by inlaying white and red clay.

In the early Joseon period, Buncheong ware, which was a successor to the inlaid celadon of the previous period, was fired, reaching its peak in the 15th century. In Japan, this is called Mishima or Hakeme, and showed a new development with its simple shapes, but from the 17th century onwards, influenced by the Yuan and early Ming dynasties in China, white porcelain began to be fired and became the mainstream of Joseon ceramics. The range of production also expanded to include blue and white porcelain, iron sand porcelain, and cinnabar porcelain, and unique, excellent pieces were fired one after another. The tea bowls that came to be prized as "Koryo tea bowls" along with the popularity of the tea ceremony in Japan were a type of Joseon porcelain for everyday use.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Lacquer Craftsman

It is estimated from relic fragments that lacquerware was made before Christ, but its production only flourished after the Three Kingdoms period, with excavated items from the tomb of King Muryeong of Baekje and the royal tombs of Gyeongju of Silla. However, the majority of the relics date from the Goryeo period onwards, and the inlay techniques seen in pottery were also used in this field, with excellent mother-of-pearl crafts being found in Buddhist altar implements, furniture and stationery. Furthermore, wooden furniture made towards the end of the Joseon dynasty has a simple yet unadorned beauty, and it well displays a naturalistic side similar to Joseon dynasty pottery.

[Shinichi Nagai]

Architecture

The layout of the temple buildings at Japan's Asuka period temples, Shitennoji and Asukadera, was modelled on those of Baekje and Goguryeo, but only the plans of both have been confirmed as temple sites and the remains have been lost. As in Japan, wooden temples were constructed from the Three Kingdoms period onwards, and temple construction became even more popular during the Unified Silla period, but no temples from that time remain, and only excellent stone structures remain. Representative examples are the two stone pagodas of Seokgatap and Dabotap at Bulguksa Temple in Gyeongju; the former is also known as Mugento, a three-storey square pagoda with excellent stonework techniques, although there are others of the same style. It stands in stark contrast to the unique structural form of the Tabotapagoda that stands alongside it.

The oldest surviving wooden building in Korea is the Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple (Yeongju City, North Gyeongsang Province), which is estimated to have been built in the late 13th century during the Goryeo Dynasty. It has five bays and three beams, a gabled roof structure, and strong entasis in the pillars, and uses Song-style architectural techniques, just like Japanese Daibutsu-yo architecture.

During the Joseon Dynasty, present-day Seoul, which was called Hanyang or Hanseong, was designed as a walled city, surrounded by stone walls, with Namdaemun, Dongdaemun and six other small gates, and inside were Gyeongbokgung Palace, Deoksugung Palace, Changdeokgung Palace, etc. All of these palaces, except for Namdaemun (1396), were burned down during the Imjin-Jeongyu Japanese Invasion, and the current palaces were rebuilt after that. There are two styles: the Dabao style, which was imported from the Yuan Dynasty at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty (with brackets placed not only on the capitals but also between the pillars, creating a complex and lively appearance), and the Chushinbo style (with brackets only on the capitals, brackets placed between the pillars, and carved brackets on the brackets), but the Chushinbo style, which developed mainly in Buddhist temples, gradually fell out of use as Buddhism was excluded from the capital, and the Dabao style, which emphasized the free-spirited decorativeness of the exterior, became the mainstream for wooden architecture. Its distinctive features are well displayed in the design of today's reconstructed palace architecture.

[Shinichi Nagai]

"Korean Art History" by Kim Won Ryong, translated by Nishitani Tadashi (1976, Meishu Publishing)" ▽ "An Outline of Korean Archaeology" by Kim Won Ryong, translated by Nishitani Tadashi, revised and expanded version (1984, Rokuko Publishing) " ▽ "Catalogue of Masterpieces from the National Museum of Korea, edited by the National Museum of Korea (1972, Dai Nippon Kaiga)" ▽ "Ancient Art of Silla, edited by the National Museum of Korea (1975, Gakuseisha) " ▽ "Mural Tombs of the Korean Peninsula" by Kim Ki Woong (1980, Rokuko Publishing)" ▽ "Korean Architecture and Culture" by Itami Jun (1983, Kyuryudo) " ▽ "Korean Ceramics" by Kushi Takuma (1974, Yusankaku Publishing)

Distribution of ruins in Korea
©Shogakukan ">

Distribution of ruins in Korea

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国文化圏にあった朝鮮では、美術面でも中国の強い影響下にあったが、風土や民族性を反映して独自な発展を示している。同じ中国の影響下にあった日本と比べても、雨が少なく乾燥している半島では良材に乏しく、そのかわり石材や陶土、金属資源に恵まれているため、石造建造物や石仏、陶芸、そして金属工芸などに優品が多い。

［永井信一］

朝鮮美術の源流

朝鮮半島の先史時代が旧石器時代にさかのぼることは、従来からかなり確実性の濃いものと考えられていた。しかし、1973年以降、旧石器遺跡の発掘が相次ぎ、とくに近年発掘された文谷里(ぶんこくり)（韓国忠清北道丹陽郡赤城面）のものは、2万点を超す膨大な遺物と47か所の石器製作所が確認されたという点で、学界の注目を集めている。この遺跡は忠州ダム建設地域調査によって発見されたもので、単一遺跡としては朝鮮半島最大の面積を有し、旧石器時代中期・後期のものであることが実証された。

　新石器時代の遺跡や遺物は各地で発見されているが、その上限はおそらく紀元前3000年ごろまでさかのぼるといわれている。この時代の指標となる土器の遺物は櫛目文(くしめもん)土器で、これはシベリア地方から広まってきたものである。櫛目文土器の器形は一般に単純な形の丸底や尖底(せんてい)で、深鉢、甕(かめ)、皿、碗(わん)などがある。文様は、串(くし)状あるいは櫛歯状の簡単な道具を用いて、口縁部や胴部、または底部の周縁に施した幾何学的文様が主体であるが、その細部をみると、北東朝鮮出土のものと南朝鮮出土のものとでは違いがあり、シベリア沿岸地方で発見される土器と共通点のあることが注目される。

　櫛目文土器の次につくられたのは無文土器で、これは朝鮮半島における青銅器時代の指標をなす。土器の表面に赤褐色の顔料（酸化鉄）を塗り、それを磨いたもので、その源は中国の甘粛(かんしゅく)省を中心とする華北の彩陶の系統にあるといわれるが、鉱物資源に富む朝鮮陶芸の技巧上の原形が、すでにこのときつくられつつあったことはきわめて注目すべきことである。櫛目文土器の時代はまだ原始農耕の域を出ず、狩猟・漁労が生活の基盤であったと考えられるが、赤褐色無文土器の時代になると、かなり規模の大きい農耕生活が基盤となっていたことが推察される。

［永井信一］

彫刻

先史時代の遺物には、日本の土偶・土面などに匹敵する美術的価値のあるものは、現在のところまだみられない。三国時代の4世紀ごろになると、新羅(しらぎ)の古墳から発見された人物、馬、虎(とら)、水鳥、水牛、蛙(かえる)などの小さな土偶類がみられ、5世紀末ごろの慶州・金鈴塚(きんれいづか)出土の騎馬武人型容器には、古代朝鮮民族の素朴で人間味のある表現がみられるが、その土の扱いや単純明快な造形感覚は、のちに陶芸のなかで開花するようになる。

　中国からの仏教伝来は、高句麗(こうくり)へは372年、百済(くだら)へは384年で、新羅へもこれと前後して伝来したものと思われる。以後、彫刻は仏像を中心に展開する。しかし現在のところ、4、5世紀につくられたと思われる仏教美術の遺品はみられず、現存最古の在銘像は高句麗の延嘉7年（539）の金銅如来(にょらい)立像（ソウル・国立中央博物館）である。1963年、慶尚南道宜寧郡大義面下村里で発見されたこの像は、刻銘に「高麗国楽良」の文字があり、様式的には6世紀初頭の北魏(ほくぎ)仏の模倣の跡が著しい。また、黄海道出土と伝える辛卯(しんぼう)（571）銘の金銅無量寿像（阿弥陀(あみだ)像）も、銘文中の供養者名から高句麗のものと推定されるが、これは東魏様式を踏襲した一光三尊形式である。

　高句麗は三国のなかでも、地理的にもっとも中国に近く、漢文化の影響をいちばん強く受けていたから、仏像製作はもっとも進んでおり、古新羅や百済もこの高句麗の先進文化の後を追った。しかし、のちには百済の仏教文化がもっとも華やかに栄えた。その首都であった公州および扶余(ふよ)を中心に建立された寺院の規模もかなり大きく、造像のうえでもかなり進んだものがあったと考えられるが、今日残るのは小さな石像、小金銅像だけで、その全般をうかがい知ることはできない。一方、古新羅では慶州を中心に仏教文化が栄え、552年には九層塔を有する皇竜寺のような大寺院が建立され、近年の発掘調査により、往時の盛観がしのばれるようになった。慶州の北部栄州、安東の両地域から出土したといわれる金銅半跏思惟(はんかしい)像は小像であるが、高句麗仏の影響の濃いものであることは注目される。このように6世紀中期までの三国時代の造像は高句麗のそれを手本につくられたが、6世紀後半に入ると、百済は中国南朝梁(りょう)と関係を結び、梁を通して南朝様式が取り入れられたことが、乏しいながら遺品のうえにうかがえる。古新羅は、前半の高句麗様式を受け継いでいった。

　6世紀前半から朝鮮半島でつくられた弥勒(みろく)半跏思惟像はかなりの数に上り、現在個人蔵になっている平壌出土のものは、そのなかでも最古の作と考えられる。そして、この形式の仏像の盛行は、高句麗の影響によるものと思われる。ソウルの国立中央博物館には、6世紀後半の仏像彫刻を代表する2躯(く)の金銅弥勒半跏思惟像がある。ともに等身大の優品で、両像とも出所については所伝がいろいろで、確かなことはわかっていないが、一見してその様式に大きな相違のあることがわかる。とくにそのうちの一つは、「宝冠弥勒」とよばれる京都・広隆寺の木造弥勒半跏思惟像に酷似している。この両像の様式の違いをどのようにみるかは、朝鮮古代彫刻の系譜を決定づける重要なポイントになるところから、十分な資料のそろわない現状では速断は避けるべきだが、あえて推量するならば、広隆寺像と似ている像は、全体のつくりが簡明で温和な作風を示し、百済美術の特色をよく表している。これに対し、もう一つの像は、宝冠の意匠や着衣の表現にいかめしい装いが感じられ、古新羅の造像の傾向の一面を示している。この2像に限らず、出土地や出所の不明な金銅仏の多いことは、朝鮮古代彫刻の解明に大きな障害となっているが、これに比べると、石仏や磨崖(まがい)仏（摩崖仏）は重要な示唆を与えてくれるし、美術的にも優れたものが多い。

　7世紀に入ると、古新羅、百済はそれぞれ独自の造像の経過をたどったが、それを立証する石仏が新しく発見された。一つは慶尚北道の慶州と安東を結ぶ国道の中間にある軍威郡南山洞石窟(せっくつ)の阿弥陀三尊像、他は百済の故地、忠清南道瑞山(ずいさん)市雲山面の磨崖の三尊像で、両者の作風の違いは、古新羅と百済の造像の傾向を端的に示している。とくに瑞山の磨崖仏の脇侍(きょうじ)の一つは半跏思惟像の形姿をとり、全体に穏やかでまろやかな感じにあふれている。そして口元にみられるこぼれるような微笑は、「百済のほほえみ」と韓国の美術史家が名づけたように、百済仏の造像理念をもっとも顕著に表したものである。

　677年以降の統一新羅時代は、中国では唐代にあたる。積極的に唐の文化を受け入れたこの時代は、仏教文化が隆盛し、石像、金銅像、塑像など盛んにつくられ、現存するものも少なくない。初期の遺品では、塼造(せんぞう)四天王像（慶州・四天王寺址(し)出土）、感恩寺（682ころ創建）址西塔納入舎利容器付随の半肉(はんにく)彫り金銅四天王像が注目され、唐代彫刻との密接な関係を物語っている。しかし、統一新羅の仏教美術の精華を伝えるのは、慶州南山の石仏群と、同吐含山の石窟庵(あん)で、数多い南山石仏のなかでは、巨大な岩面に半肉彫りで刻まれた神仙庵の菩薩(ぼさつ)半跏像がとくに優れている。また石窟庵本尊の石造釈迦(しゃか)如来坐像(ざぞう)とその一群の脇侍は、新羅工人の200年にわたる伝統と独自の感覚を造形化したもので、優雅典麗ななかにも雄渾(ゆうこん)な民族精神が込められている。

　8世紀後半に入ると、衣文の表現と像容に特色のある形式をもった小金銅仏（新羅金銅仏）がつくられるようになるが、その形成の系統についてはまだ明らかでない。また新羅の彫刻では、仏像のほかに、墳墓の周囲にはめ込まれた浮彫りの石像が注目される。十二支の動物を擬人化し守護神としてつくられたもので、中国にも例をみない優れたものといえよう。9世紀に入ると仏像の作風はしだいに低下するが、定林寺や到彼岸寺の毘盧遮那(びるしゃな)仏のような鉄仏が盛んにつくられ、その傾向は高麗(こうらい)時代の初めまで続く。高麗も仏教を国教としたので、仏教美術は各方面に新展開をみせたが、仏像は様式的にみるべきものはなく、前代を凌駕(りょうが)することはできなかった。

［永井信一］

絵画

朝鮮の絵画史をみるとき、現存する作品から、次の三つの時期に限られる。すなわち、高句麗の古墳壁画（4～7世紀）、高麗末期（13～14世紀）の仏画、李朝(りちょう)（14世紀以降）絵画であり、それ以外の百済や古新羅、統一新羅時代、高麗前半期の遺品はきわめて少なく、8～12世紀の約500年については空白に近い状態といってよい。

［永井信一］

高句麗の古墳壁画

高句麗時代の壁画古墳は、主として北朝鮮の平壌市、南浦市、平安南道、黄海南道、および中国の吉林(きつりん)省集安市に分布し、『高句麗古墳壁画史料集』（1985・高句麗文化展実行委員会刊）によると、その数は83に達している。最古の壁画は安岳(あんがく)3号墳（黄海南道）のもので、永和13年（357）紀年と埋葬者冬寿の銘をもつ。ほかに将軍塚（吉林省集安市）、江西大墓、徳興里(とっこうり)（ともに平安南道）などが知られる。壁画の主題は人物風俗画を描いたものが最初で、4世紀後半になると人物に四神図（青竜、朱雀(すざく)、白虎(びゃっこ)、玄武(げんぶ)）が加わり、6世紀中ごろに下ると、石室の壁面に直接描いた四神図が中心になる。作風的には、中国の東晋(とうしん)末および北魏の影響を強く受けているが、東アジア最古の絵画を代表する遺品として重要であり、近年では日本の飛鳥(あすか)時代の高松塚古墳壁画との類似性からも、その意義は広く注目されるようになった。

［永井信一］

高麗の仏画

中国宋(そう)代絵画の影響を受けて、高麗時代には繊細な技巧を駆使した仏画が多数描かれたが、遺品は末期に集中し、その数も少ない。しかし、わが国にも伝来しており、日本銀行の『阿弥陀如来像』、京都・知恩院と和歌山・親王院の『弥勒下生(げしょう)経変相図』、東京・根津美術館と京都・玉林院の『阿弥陀如来坐像』、東京・浅草寺と奈良・長谷(はせ)寺などの『楊柳観音(ようりゅうかんのん)図』、静岡・MOA美術館と京都・松尾寺の『阿弥陀三尊像』、奈良・東大寺の『香象大師像』などによって、美しい文様表現を特色とする高麗仏画の一端をうかがうことができる。なお仏画以外の鑑賞画では、仁宗から毅宗(きそう)朝（1123～70）ごろに活躍した李寧(りねい)が、入宋(にっそう)の際その妙手を徽宗(きそう)に激賞されたという記録があり、中国への傾斜の強かったことがうかがえる。

［永井信一］

李朝絵画

14世紀末から20世紀初めまで続いた李朝では、前代の仏教にかわって儒教が国教として採用され、その結果、美術も大きく変わった。絵画は、初期には中国の明(みん)朝の、後期には清(しん)朝の影響を受けつつ発達するが、とくに高麗時代から宋・元の影響のもとに愛好され始めた水墨画が文人の余技として盛んに描かれている。一方、官制の画院（図画署(とがしょ)）では、専門画家が写実的な鑑賞画を制作、代表的な画員に初期の安堅(あんけん)（15世紀中期に活躍）、鄭(ていぜん)（1676―1759）、金弘道（1745―？）がいる。また儒教の祖先崇拝から肖像画も画員、文人によって広く描かれたが、これらは人物の全容を画面いっぱいに正面から描写する独特の形式をみせている。

　以上の上層階級のための正統派絵画のほか、庶民の絵画の需要にこたえて、膨大な作品が制作されている。日常生活と結び付いた民衆の生活感情を生き生きと表現したもので、「民画」と通称される。人物図、花鳥図、文房図などのほか、儒教の徳目の文字（忠・孝・信・礼など）を独特の書体で書き、それを草花・動物などで装飾した文字絵があり、いずれも民間信仰的な象徴性にあふれる。無名の民間画家によるそのユニークな造形美は、現代人にも強く訴えるものがあり、日本では柳宗悦(やなぎむねよし)らの民芸運動のなかで紹介されて広く知られるに至った。

［永井信一］

工芸

金工

金属資源に恵まれた朝鮮半島には、古くから優れた金工品が多い。三国時代の高句麗、百済、加耶(かや)（加羅）、新羅の墳墓からは、豪華な黄金製の副葬品が出土しているが、なかでも慶州の金冠塚、金鈴塚、瑞鳳(ずいほう)塚、天馬塚などから発掘された金冠その他の副葬品、1971年に武寧王陵（忠清南道公州市）で発見された王と王妃の金製冠飾および金銀製の飾り金具は、新羅と百済のそれぞれの工芸の粋を集めたもので、典雅な趣(おもむき)にあふれたなかにも両者の作風の違いがみられる。

　また、朝鮮の鋳造技術を代表するものに梵鐘(ぼんしょう)がある。中国唐代の梵鐘を祖型とし、統一新羅時代に盛んに鋳造されたが、朝鮮鐘(しょう)とよばれる独自の特殊な形式をもつ。国立慶州博物館にある奉徳寺鐘（聖徳大王神鐘、エミレの鐘）は、高さ3.33メートル、口径2.27メートルの優美な巨鐘で、表面に鋳出された宝相華(ほうそうげ)文や飛天はきわめて繊細流麗である。以後、朝鮮鐘はその形式を踏襲して高麗、李朝でもつくられたが、しだいに小型化、粗雑化した。日本にも南北朝時代から多数もたらされ、福井県常宮(じょうぐう)神社などに40余口が現存する。

［永井信一］

陶芸

三国時代には、中国の技術を導入して、灰色硬質土器がつくられた。とくに騎馬人物や瑞獣などをかたどった象形土器は、力強く、おおらかな民族性をよく示している。高麗時代の10世紀中期、中国五代の越州窯(えっしゅうよう)の青磁技術を導入して、いわゆる高麗青磁の焼造が始まる。その技術は目覚ましい発展を遂げて、12世紀には、ほのかな灰色を含む沈んだ深い青釉(せいゆう)の翡色(ひしょく)青磁、白土・赤土を象眼して細かい文様を表した象眼青磁が考案されて、高麗の陶芸は頂点に達した。

　李朝時代になると、前期には前代の象眼青磁の流れをくむ粉青沙器が焼造され、15世紀に最盛期を迎える。これは日本では三島(みしま)、刷毛目(はけめ)とよばれ、素朴な形姿で新たな展開を示すが、17世紀以後は、中国の元・明代初期の影響によって白磁が焼造されるようになり、李朝陶磁の主流となってゆく。そして、作域も染付(そめつけ)、鉄砂(てっしゃ)、辰砂(しんしゃ)などと広がり、独自の優品が次々に焼かれた。日本で茶道の盛行とともに「高麗茶碗」として珍重された茶碗は、この李朝の日用雑器的なものである。

［永井信一］

漆工

漆工品は紀元前からつくられていたことが遺品の断片から推定されるが、製作が盛んになるのは三国時代以降で、百済の武寧王陵、新羅の慶州諸王陵の出土品がある。しかし、遺品のうえからは高麗時代以降のものが大部分を占め、陶芸に示された象眼技術がこの分野にも用いられて、仏具・家具・文房具などに優れた螺鈿(らでん)工芸品がみられる。また、李朝末期につくられた木工家具は、素朴ななかにも飾らない形の美しさがあり、李朝の焼物と同様の、自然主義的な一面をよく示している。

［永井信一］

建築

日本の飛鳥時代の寺院、四天王寺や飛鳥寺の伽藍(がらん)配置は、百済や高句麗のものを模してつくられたものであるが、いずれも寺址としてプランが確認されるだけで、遺構は失われている。日本と同じく、木造の寺院が三国時代から造営され、統一新羅時代に入ると造寺の気運は一段と盛んになったが、当時のもので現存するものはなく、石造物に優れたものが残る。代表的なものは慶州・仏国寺の釈迦塔と多宝塔の二つの石塔で、前者は別名無影塔ともいい、方形三層、同形式のものが他にもみられるが、石組技巧に優れる。そして相対するユニークな構造形式の多宝塔と際だった対照を示している。

　韓国に現存する木造建築の最古の遺構は、浮石(ふせき)寺（慶尚北道栄州市）の無量寿殿で、高麗時代13世紀後半ころの建立と推定される。桁行(けたゆき)五間、梁間(はりま)三間、入母屋(いりもや)造、柱に強いエンタシスをもち、日本の大仏様建築同様、宋風建築の手法が用いられている。

　李朝時代に入ると、漢陽または漢城とよばれた今日のソウルが城郭都市として設計され、石造の城壁を巡らし、南大門、東大門ほか六つの小門を開き、内部には景福宮をはじめ徳寿宮、昌徳(しょうとく)宮などが営まれた。それらも南大門（1396）を除き、壬辰・丁酉倭乱(じんしんていゆうわらん)で焼失し、現存宮殿はその後の再建である。様式としては、高麗末に元から輸入された多包様式（柱頭はもとより柱間にも斗栱(ときょう)を置いて複雑でにぎやかな外観を形成する）、および柱心包(ちゅうしんぼう)様式（斗栱は柱頭だけで、柱間には間斗栱を置き、肘木(ひじき)には刳形(くりがた)が入る）があるが、仏教寺院を中心に発展した柱心包様式は、仏教が首都から締め出された結果しだいに廃れ、自由奔放な外観の装飾性を強調する多包様式が木造建築の主流となった。再建された今日の宮殿建築の造形に、その特色がよく示されている。

［永井信一］

『金元龍著、西谷正訳『韓国美術史』（1976・名著出版）』▽『金元龍著、西谷正訳『韓国考古学概説』増補改訂（1984・六興出版）』▽『韓国国立中央博物館編『韓国国立中央博物館名品図録』（1972・大日本絵画）』▽『韓国国立中央博物館編『新羅の古美術』（1975・学生社）』▽『金基雄著『朝鮮半島の壁画古墳』（1980・六興出版）』▽『伊丹潤著『朝鮮の建築と文化』（1983・求龍堂）』▽『久志卓真著『朝鮮の陶磁』（1974・雄山閣出版）』