A science that aims to clarify the nature and distribution of the Earth's constituent materials and how they were formed through the study of minerals, rocks, strata, and fossils, and to elucidate the history of the Earth and life, and physical, chemical, and biological phenomena on Earth. Although the objective of geology is the Earth, it always deals with materials such as minerals and rocks as a basic research method, so the main subject of geology is the lithosphere above the upper mantle, especially the upper crust. However, materials from other celestial bodies such as lunar rocks and meteorites, which are of great help in the study of the Earth, are also studied. Depending on the subject of study, geology is subdivided into petrology, geological history or stratigraphy, paleontology, structural geology, earthquake geology, and applied geology (including mineral deposit science, petroleum geology, coal geology, engineering geology, and hydrological geology). [Toshio Kimura] ClassificationPetrology is further divided into igneous rock petrology (volcanic rock petrology), metamorphic rock petrology, and sedimentary rock petrology or sedimentology. It studies when, why, and through what process these rocks were formed. Since the single or multiple types of minerals that compose rocks are formed and coexist according to physical and chemical laws, the study of these minerals is the main research method, along with the investigation and study of their occurrence in the field. Mineral deposit science studies metallic and non-metallic mineral deposits, but the methods are similar to these. Sedimentology deals with sedimentary phenomena as well as sedimentary rocks themselves. Volcanic geology, a branch of petrology, has a background in volcanic rock petrology, but investigates the properties and distribution of lava and pyroclastic rocks in volcanoes to clarify the manner and causes of volcanic eruptions. Stratigraphy uses knowledge of sedimentology to clarify the sequence of deposition of strata, and uses standard stones to determine their age, i.e., the stratigraphy. It also goes beyond that and clarifies the changes in depositional environment by studying index fossils. In the past, ages were determined only by standard stones, so historical geology was considered to be the same as sedimentary history, i.e., stratigraphy. However, since radiometric dating has become easy to perform, historical geology has become a comprehensive historical science that includes not only sedimentary rocks, but also igneous and metamorphic rocks, and also tectonic geological changes. Paleontology describes and classifies fossils, and studies the habitats and evolutionary history of past organisms. In the past, research on standard stones, especially large fossils, made a great contribution to stratigraphy. Currently, standard stones as microfossils are being studied, but the focus is shifting to research on paleoenvironments and the process of biological evolution based on them. Structural geology studies the distribution and origin of geological structures such as cracks, faults, and folds in rocks and strata. It also studies the distribution and origin of continents, oceans, large mountain ranges, and large rift valleys, as well as their formation history. Earthquake geology contributes to seismology by studying active faults that were active during the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era and that may continue to be active in the future, as well as faults with a record of historical earthquake activity (earthquake faults). [Toshio Kimura] Contribution to societyGeology has played an important role in the exploration of underground resources through mineral deposit science, coal and petroleum geology, etc., and has contributed to the development of human civilization, and continues to do so today. However, in Japan, where underground resources are scarce, the weight of civil engineering geology is growing as a contribution to society, such as investigating and researching the stability of the ground and bedrock in civil engineering construction, and the causes of ground and earthquake disasters and the safety of such disasters. [Toshio Kimura] historyLong ago, the German Agricola considered the underground formation of minerals and rocks in relation to the development of mines. Later, the Englishman Hutton demonstrated that past rocks were formed by the same phenomena that occur today, giving rise to the idea of uniformitarianism (also known as the present theory). This idea, through the Englishman Lyell, became the guiding principle of subsequent geological research. W. Smith, who created the first geological map in England, discovered that different fossils are found in different strata, laying the foundations of stratigraphy; this fact, through Lyell, also had a major influence on Darwin in creating the theory of evolution. Geology had long been a matter of natural history. To break away from this, experiments on the formation and deformation of rocks were necessary. The American Bowen made a major contribution to experimental petrology. Geology was introduced to Japan in the 1870s by the German Naumann and the American Lyman. Among the Japanese, Koto Bunjiro was the founder of geology and petrology, and Yokoyama Matajiro was the founder of paleontology. [Toshio Kimura] "General Geology" by Shuichi Iwao and Toshio Kimura (1975, Asakura Publishing) " "The Living Earth" by R.W. Ojakangas and D.G. Darby, translated by Fukutaro Hori (1979, Science Press) " "General Geology I-III" by A. Holmes, translated by Seiya Ueda et al. (1984, University of Tokyo Press) [References] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
鉱物、岩石、地層、化石の研究を通じて、地球の構成物質の性質と分布、そのでき方を明らかにし、地球と生物の歴史、地球を舞台とする物理・化学・生物現象の解明を目的とする学問。地球を研究目的とするが、基本的研究手段としてつねに鉱物や岩石などの物質を取り扱うため、マントル上層部以上の岩石圏、とくに地殻上層部が地質学の主要な研究対象である。しかし、地球の研究にとって大きな手助けとなる、月の岩石や隕石(いんせき)など他の天体の物質もまた対象とされる。地質学はその研究対象によって、岩石学、地史学または層序学、古生物学、構造地質学、地震地質学、応用地質学(鉱床学、石油地質学、石炭地質学、土木地質学、水文(すいもん)地質学などを含む)などに細分される。 [木村敏雄] 分類岩石学はさらに火成岩岩石学(火山岩岩石学)、変成岩岩石学、堆積(たいせき)岩岩石学または堆積学に分けられる。これらの諸岩石が、いつ、いかなる原因で、いかなる経過を経て生じたかを研究する。岩石を構成する単一または複数種の鉱物が物理化学の法則に従って形成されかつ共存するので、これら鉱物の研究が野外における産状の調査研究とともにおもな研究手法となる。鉱床学は金属・非金属鉱床を研究対象とするが、手法はこれらに似る。堆積学は堆積岩そのもののほかに堆積現象をも取り扱う。岩石学の分科である火山地質学は火山岩岩石学を背景に置くが、火山にある溶岩、火山砕屑(さいせつ)岩の性質や分布を調べ、火山噴火の仕方や原因を明らかにする。 層序学は、堆積学の知識をもとにして地層の堆積順序を明らかにし、標準化石を用いてその時代、すなわち層位を明らかにする。またそれにとどまることなく示相化石の研究をあわせて堆積環境の変遷を明らかにする。かつては、時代の決定は標準化石のみによってなされたので、地史学は地層堆積史すなわち層序学と同意とみなされた。しかしながら、放射年代測定が容易に行われるようになったため、地史学は本来の姿として、堆積岩系のみならず、火成岩系、変成岩系をも含め、また構造地質学的な変遷をも含めた総合的な歴史学になってきた。古生物学は化石の記載と分類とを行い、過去の生物の生息環境、進化史について研究する。かつては標準化石、とくに大型化石についての研究によって層序学に大きく寄与した。現在は微化石としての標準化石の研究が行われているが、古環境や、それを踏まえての生物進化の過程の研究に主体が移りつつある。構造地質学は、岩石・地層の中の割れ目、断層、褶曲(しゅうきょく)など地質構造の分布とその成因を研究する。また大陸や海洋、大山脈や大地溝などの分布と成因、それらの形成史を研究する。地震地質学は、新生代第四紀に活動した、今後も活動する可能性のある活断層や、歴史的地震活動記録をもつ断層(地震断層)などについて研究し、地震学に寄与している。 [木村敏雄] 社会への寄与地質学は、鉱床学、石炭・石油地質学などを通じて、地下資源探査に力を発揮し、人類文明の発展に寄与してきたし、いまでもそうである。しかし、地下資源が乏しくなった日本では、土木建設に際しての地盤・岩盤の安定性、地盤・地震災害がおこる原因やそれについての安全性の調査、研究にあたるなど、社会に対する寄与として土木地質学のウェイトが大きくなりつつある。 [木村敏雄] 歴史古くは、ドイツ人のアグリコラが、鉱山の開発に関して、地下での鉱物や岩石の生成について考察している。その後、イギリスのハットンが、現在おこっているのと同じ現象によって、過去の岩石が形成されたことを明らかにして、斉一(せいいつ)説(現行説ともいう)の考えが生まれた。この考えが、イギリスのライエルを通じて、その後の地質学研究の指導原理となった。イギリスで地質図を初めてつくったW・スミスは異なる地層に異なる化石があることをみいだして層序学の基礎を築いたが、その事実もまたライエルを通じて、進化論を生み出すうえで、ダーウィンに大きな影響を与えた。地質学は長く博物学的であった。それを抜けるには岩石の生成や変形についての実験を必要とした。実験岩石学においてはアメリカのボーエンが大きな貢献をした。 日本には1870年代にドイツのナウマン、アメリカのライマンらによって地質学が輸入された。日本人としては、小藤文次郎(ことうぶんじろう)が地質学と岩石学、また横山又次郎(またじろう)が古生物学の創始者である。 [木村敏雄] 『岩生周一・木村敏雄著『一般地質学』(1975・朝倉書店)』▽『R・W・オジャカンガス、D・G・ダービー著、堀福太郎訳『生きている地球』(1979・サイエンス社)』▽『A・ホームズ著、上田誠也他訳『一般地質学Ⅰ~Ⅲ』(1984・東京大学出版会)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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